International Business Study Guide

IBM 414 Study Guide Ch:12 Global Marketing Management: Planning and Organization Global Marketing – †¢The trend back toward localization –Caused by the new efficiencies of customization –Made possible by the Internet –Increasingly flexible manufacturing processes From the marketing perspective customization is always best †¢Global markets continue to homogenize and diversify simultaneously –Best companies will avoid trap of focusing on country as the primary segmentation variable International Marketing- is the performance of business activities designed to plan, price, promote, and direct the flow of a company's goods and services to consumers or users in more than one nation for a profit. †¢An entry strategy into international market should reflect on analysis –Market characteristics †¢Potential sales †¢Strategic importance Strengths of local resources †¢Cultural differences †¢Country restrictions – Company capabilities and characteristics †¢Degree of near-market knowledge †¢Marketing involvement †¢Management commitment Exporting Indirect Exporting-requires no equity investment and thus has a low risk, low rate of return, and little control. Licensing –A means of establishing a foothold in foreign markets without large capital outlays –A favorite strategy for small and medium-sized companies –Legitimate means of capitalizing on intellectual property in a foreign marketJoint Venures-When two or more participating companies join forces to create a separate legal entity to facilitate doing business in the international arena Direct Investment †¢Factors that influence the structure and performance of direct investments –Timing –The growing complexity and contingencies of contracts –Transaction cost structures –Technology transfer –Degree of product differentiation –The previous experiences and cultur al diversity of acquired firms –Advertising and reputation barriers Example:When a company sells to a customer in another country, the company is into Direct exporting.Strategic International Allicance Consortia –Similar to joint ventures and could be classified as such except for two unique characteristics †¢Typically involve a large number of participants †¢Frequently operate in a country or market in which none of the participants is currently active –Consortia are developed to pool financial and managerial resources and to lessen risks Joint Ventures –JVs are established, separate, legal entities –The acknowledged intent by the partners to share in the management of the JV There are partnerships between legally incorporated entities such as companies, chartered organizations, or governments, and not between individuals –Equity positions are held by each of the partners Franchise –Franchiser provides a standard package of products, systems, and management services –Franchise provides market knowledge, capital, and personal involvement in management –Expected to be the fastest-growing market-entry strategy †¢Two types of franchise agreements –Master franchise †¢Gives the franchisee the rights to a specific area with the authority to sell or establish subfranchises –LicensingContract Manufacturing-is a manufacturer that contracts with a firm for components or products. It is a form of outsourcing. Contracting Management- is the management of contracts made with customers, vendors, partners, or employees. Contract management includes negotiating the terms and conditions in contracts and ensuring compliance with the terms and conditions, as well as documenting and agreeing on any changes or amendments that may arise during its implementation or execution. CH:8 Developing a global vision though marketing research Challeneges and problems The major difficulty is conve rting a series of often ambiguous business problems into tightly drawn and achievable research objectives †¢The first, most crucial step in research is more critical in foreign markets because an unfamiliar environment tends to could problems definition †¢Other difficulties in foreign research stem from failures to establish problem limits broad enough to include all relevant variables Environmental Scanning- Careful monitoring of an organization's internal and external environments for detecting early signs of opportunities and threats that may influence its current and future plans.Marketing Screening- The process of discovering relevant information about a tradable asset in order to determine a fair price for the asset. Primarily used to avoid creating an adverse transaction. Steps to marketing Screening- Market- A regular gathering of people for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other commodities. Requirements of effective Market Segmentation Describe the psychographic segments profiled in the Worldwide Global Scan study How can international market demand be estimated? page 236When desired stats aren't available a close approximation can be made using local production figures plus imports, with adjustments for exports and current inventory levels CH:13 Products and services for consumers Why are product strategy decisions the most crucial ones in the marketing mix? What two errors do multinational product managers tend to commit? Define and explain: Product, Quality Features and benefits Reliability, Durability Product Homologation. What are the standardization/adaptation strategies that a marketer can implement and when would you recommend them? What is meant by the â€Å"diffusion of motivations†?What are the degrees of newness that a product can exhibit and what are the (perceived) product characteristics of an innovation that affect its rate of acceptance? What is product counterfeiting and how can it be fought? CH:1 4 Products and Services for Businesses ISO 9000 †¢Positively affects the performance and stock prices of firms †¢Certification of the existence of a quality control system a company has in place to ensure it can meet published quality standards –Describes three quality system models –Defines quality concepts –Gives guidelines for using international standards in quality systems Generally voluntary †¢EU Product Liability Directive †¢Now a competitive marketing tool in Europe and around the world †¢The ACSI approach Trade Shows †¢Secondary methods for marketing: –Advertising in print media –Catalogs –Web sites –Direct mail †¢Trade shows have become the primary and most important vehicle for doing business in many foreign countries †¢Total annual media budget spent on trade events: –Europeans – 22 percent –Americans – 5 percent †¢Benefits –Provide the facilit ies for a manufacturer to exhibit and demonstrate products to potential users –Allow manufacturers to view competitors products Are an opportunity to create sales and establish relationships with agents, distributors, franchisees, and suppliers †¢Online trade shows –Become useful in difficult economic and/or political circumstances –Are obviously a less than adequate substitute for live trade shows CH:18 Pricing for International Markets Price Escalation- A disparity in pricing where goods have higher costs in a foreign market than in the domestic market due to transportation and exporting costs. Price escalation can also refer to the sum of cost factors in the distribution channels which add up to a higher final cost for a product in a foreign market.The difference between the domestic price and the target price in foreign markets due to the application of duties, dealer margins and/or other transaction costs. How can the effect of price escalation be less ened? †¢Lowering cost of goods –Manufacturing in a third country –Eliminating costly functional features –Lowering overall product quality †¢Lowering tariffs –Reclassifying products into a different, and lower customs classification –Modify product to qualify for a lower tariff rate within classification –Requiring assembly or further processing –Repackaging †¢Lowering distribution costs Shorter channels –Reducing or eliminating middlemen †¢Using foreign trade zones to lessen price escalation –Establish free trade zones (FTZs) or free ports †¢Tax-free enclave not considered part of country †¢Postpones payment of duties and tariffs †¢Dumping – To place (goods or stock, for example) on the market in large quantities and at a low price. –Use of marginal (variable) cost pricing –Selling goods in foreign country below the price of the same goods in the home market Gray M arket- A market where a product is bought and sold outside of the manufacturer's authorized trading channels.The unofficial trading of a company's shares , usually before they are issued in an initial public offering (IPO). †¢Occur whenever price differences are greater than cost of transportation between two markets †¢Major problem for pharmaceutical companies †¢Exclusive distribution Transfer Pricing †¢Prices of goods transferred from a company’s operations or sales units in one country to its units elsewhere –May be adjusted to enhance the ultimate profit of company †¢Benefits –Lowering duty costs –Reducing income taxes in high-tax countries –Facilitating dividend repatriation when dividend repatriation is curtailed by government policy †¢Objectives Maximizing profits for corporation –Facilitating parent-company control –Providing all levels of management control over profitability †¢Arrangements for pricing goods for intracompany transfer –Sales at the local manufacturing cost plus a standard markup –Sales at the cost of the most efficient producer in the company plus a standard markup –Sales at negotiated prices –Arm’s-length sales using the same prices as quoted to independent customers Countertrade †¢Types of countertrade –Barter –Compensation deals –Counterpurchase or offset trade –Product buyback agreement †¢Problems of countertrading Determining the value of and potential demand for the goods offered –Barter houses – †¢The Internet and countertrading –Electronic trade dollars –Universal Currency/IRTA †¢Proactive countertrade strategy –Included as part of an overall market strategy –Effective for exchange-poor countries Administered Pricing- The price of a good or service as dictated by a governmental or other governing agency. Administered price s are not determined by regular market forces of supply and demand. Ch:16 Intergrated Marketing Communications and International Advertising 6) What are the four methods of promotion and how can they be used in nternational marketing? Integrated marketing communications (IMC) are composed of advertising, sales promotions, trade shows, personal selling, direct selling, and public relations Sales promotions-marketing activities that stimulate consumer purchases and improve retailer or middlemen effectiveness and cooperation Public relations (PR)-creating good relationships with the popular press and other media to help companies communicate messages to their publics-customers, the general public, and governmental regulators.Public relations firms’ billings in the international arena have been growing at double digit rates for some years. Handling such international PR problems as global workplace standards and product safety recalls has become big business for companies serving large companies. International advertising-global mass media advertising is a powerful tool for cultural change, and as such, it receives continuing scrutiny by a wide variety of institutions. What are the pros and cons of standardization, adaptation and â€Å"glocalization† in international advertising?Standardization Pros Standardized marketing for global companies typically offers significant cost benefits. If the same message works universally, you don't have to spend money to develop customized marketing messages. While you would have to adapt the language to the local markets, the conceptual premise of your messages can remain constant. Also, if your brand theme is powerful and has global appeal, a standardized approach helps people around the world share in the value proposition you offer Cons Global marketing standardization is not sensible in all cases.If people use your products differently or if your brand message doesn't work everywhere, you need to be flexible. McDonald's, for instance, has been successful selling its western and American cultural appeal in some countries such as Russia, Japan and France. However, the fast food chain has emphasized its relationship with local suppliers and management in some countries in the Middle East and elsewhere, where attitudes toward western and American culture are less welcoming. Globalization Pros The main benefit of globalization is that it lets you reach a lot more customers.As long as there is demand in an overseas market for a product or service your business offers, there is a customer base. A product that sells successfully at home will often do well in international markets, says Wesley Johnston, a marketing professor at Georgia State University. Electronics and other tech products are examples of consumer goods that sell well on the global market. Cons Before taking your business worldwide, make sure there is a market for it. Consumers in other countries often have different preferences a nd needs and might not have much interest in buying your product.For example, if you sell Canadian flags, you might not find much demand in countries outside Canada. Another risk of going global is that it can be costly. This is especially true if you decide to set up operations in other countries. Finally, different countries have different regulatory standards. Products that can be made and sold freely in some markets might run up against stiff regulatory hurdles in other countries. Adaptation Explain the statement, â€Å"The search for a global advertising campaign can be the spearhead of the search for a coherent global marketing strategy. What types of errors are committed when advertisers attempt to go global? †¢Consumer criticism †¢Deceptive advertising †¢Decency and blatant use of sex †¢Self-regulation †¢Government regulations What challenges confront international advertisers when they attempt to develop creative and media strategies? †¢Langua ge is one of the major barriers to effective communication through advertising †¢Translation challenges †¢Low literacy in many countries †¢Multiple languages within a country †¢In-country testing with the target consumer group avoids problems caused by linguistic differences ) Can personal selling and sales promotion be standardized in international markets? What role do publicity and public relations play in international marketing? what are the three sources of personnel for international assignments and how can U. S. personnel be trained for such assignments? Expatriates- –Numbers are declining –Important for highly technical or involved products –High cost –Cultural and legal barriers –Limited number of high-caliber personnel willing to live abroad Virtual Expatriates- –Manage operations in other countries but don’t live there Local Nationals Transcend both cultural and legal barriers –Familiar with dist ribution systems and referral networks –Headquarters personnel may ignore their advice –Lack of availability –Sales positions viewed negatively What are the differences in cultural values that can affect management practices in foreign cultures? How has the profile of global managers changed in recent years? †¢Objectivity –â€Å"Separating people from the problem† †¢Competitiveness and equality –Japanese appear to be the best negotiators with the highest profits –Japanese appear to be more equitable with buyers Time –The passage of time is viewed differently across cultures Describe the negotiation process. Stages 1. Non Task Sounding – Report 2. Task related exchange of info – Sales Pitch †¢Let the foreign counterparts bring up business †¢Expect a large number of questions but little feedback †¢Allow periods of silence †¢Use multiple communication channels †¢Understand the lack of, or the bluntness of negative feedback †¢Meet aggressive first offers with questions, not anger 3. Persuasion – Handling of objectives Task-related information exchange versus persuasion †¢Avoid threats, warnings, and other aggressive negotiation tactics †¢Avoid emotional outbursts †¢Ask more questions †¢Use third parties and information channels of communication 4. Consensus & agreement – The close †¢Write down concession-making strategies †¢Understand differences in decision-making styles †¢In many cultures, no concessions are made until the end of the negotiations CH 15 International Marketing Channels #8 Describe the difference between traditional, import-oriented distribution systems and modern ones.Page 421 In an imported-oriented or traditional distributution an importer controls a fixed supply of goods, and the marketing system develops around the philosophy of selling a limited supply of goods at high prices to a smal l number of affluent customers. Describe the current Japanese System; how can an international marketer secure a foothold in the Japanese System? Small retailers are considered to be the foundation of the Japanese distribution system. Distribution in Japan has long been considered the most effective nontariff barrier to the Japanese market.What are the pros and cons of using foreign vs. home country middlemen? Foreign Middlemen-Pros-shorter channels and deal with middlemen in constant contact with the market (page 434) Home Country Middlemen-(domestic middlemen) companies relegate foreign market distribution to others. Offer many advantages for companies with small international sales volume, those inexperienced with foreign markets, those not wanting to become immediately involved with the complexities of international marketing, and those wanting to sell abroad with minimal financial and management commitment.Con- limited control over the entire process. Page 431 What are the stra tegic goal–the 6C’s of channel strategy? page 436 COST CAPITAL REQUIREMENTS CONTROL COVERAGE CHARACTER CONTINUITY How should you go about locating, selecting and motivating middlemen? page 438 Locating-productivity or volume, financial strength, managerial stability, and capability, and the nature and reputation of the business. Selecting-low volume or low potential volume hampers most prospects, many are underfinanced and some simply cannot be trusted.Motivating- motivational techniques that can be employed to maintain middlemen interest and support for the product may be grouped into five categories: financial rewards, psychological rewards, communications, company support, and corporate rapport. What is the significance of the internet for international distribution and what issues must a prospective e-vendor consider? page 441 Internet is an important distribution method for multinational companies and a source of products for businesses and consumers. Put the cons umer in control of marketing and distribution globally #9What is the purpose of export restrictions? are limitations on the quantity of goods exported to a specific country or countries by a government. Describe the process necessary to determine whether or not an export license is required? An export license is not required Define and explain the following: boycott, free-trade zone (FTZ), maquiladoras, bill of lading, and foreign-freight forwarder. Boycott-is an act of voluntarily abstaining from using, buying, or dealing with a person, organization, or country as an expression of protest, usually for social or political reasons.Sometimes, it can be a form of consumer activism. Free-trade zone-customs privileged (In a FTZ, payment of import duties is postponed until the product leaves the FTZ area and enters the country. Page 536 Maquiladora-is the Mexican name for manufacturing operations in a free trade zone (FTZ), where factories import material and equipment on a duty-free and tariff-free basis for assembly, processing, or manufacturing and then export the assembled, processed and/or manufactured products, sometimes back to the raw materials' country of origin.Example given in class (Tijuana) Bill of lading-is a document used in the transport of goods by sea. It serves several purposes in international trade. Foreign-freight forwarder-is a person or company that organizes shipments for individuals or corporations to get goods from the manufacturer or producer to a market, customer or final point of distribution. Forwarders contract with a carrier to move the goods. A forwarder does not move the goods but acts as an expert in supply chain management What is physical distribution (logistics)?Involves more than the physical movement of goods. It includes the location of plants and warehousing, transportation mode, inventory qualities and packing. What is the physical distribution concept? Takes into account the interdependence of the costs of each activity; a decision involving one activity affects the cost and efficiency of one or all others. Page 449 What are the pros and cons of the different modes of transport available to international marketers?

The Women of Colonial Latin America

The Book is rich with topics describing opportunities and challenges that shaped the lives of women in Latin America influenced by Spain and Portugal. Engagingly written by Socolow the book can be a very useful reference for teachers of Latin American Studies. The piece abounds with historical information covering effects of conquests, colonization, and settlement of colonial women. It looks into the various roles played by women stressing on their responsibilities and duties as well as their limitations.It gives light as to how factors like race, social status, occupation and environment among others affect women in every circumstance. I would say the piece is one whole powerful presentation. Socolow being a member of the gender in discussion gives weight to the whole intellectual experience. The book might have a different feel if it was written by a man. Socolow made sure that she started her book with an attention grabbing Introduction. I think everyone who has read would agree t hat it is very effective.It is very perceptive but not overly dramatic, it hands the reader all the needed information to the last detail but not to the point that it becomes dreary. The author can be likened to a professional cab driver – expertly maneuvering a vehicle full of passengers to an intended destination. Chapter One, Iberian Women in the Old World and the New is an interesting historical account of how key players in history changed women’s role across time.Chapter Two, Before Columbus: Women in Indigenous America and Africa is an enlightening and at the same time intriguing description of history. Chapter Three, Conquest and Colonization documents the hardships and brutality experienced by women during war. All the other Chapters namely Women, Marriage, and Family, Elite Women, The Brides of Christ and Other Religious Women, Women and Work, Women and Slavery, Women and Social Deviance: Crime, Witchcraft, and Rebellion, Women and Enlightenment Reform bear t he same keen observation and consistency of purpose.The book seems just historical at first but it has more than just historical information. I would say it is a must read – for those who wants to understand how the role of women evolve from early Spanish conquest to what it is presently. The author use easy and simple language that her ideas just flow from page to page. All in all – Socolow’s ‘The Women of Colonial Latin America: New Approaches to the Americas’ is a rich book that surely gets its reader’s hooked.

Friedrich Nietzsche Essay

Existentialism provides a moving account of the agony of being in the world. The spirit of existen- tialism has a long history in philosophy. But it be- came a major movement in the second half of the 20th century. Existentialism is not a systematic body of thought like Marxism or psychoanalysis. Instead, it is more like an umbrella under which a very wide range of thinkers struggled with ques- tions about the meaning of life. Much of the appeal and popularity of Existential- ism is due to the sense of confusion, the crisis, and the feeling of rejection and rootlessness that Euro- peans felt during World War II and its aftermath. Existentialism’s focus on each person’s role in cre- ating meaning in their life was a major influence on the Phenomenological and Humanistic traditions in psychology and on the â€Å"human potential† move- ment that emerged from them. Rene Descartes (1596-1650) said, â€Å"Conquer your- self rather than the world. †. To modern existential- ists this means that the World itself has no real meaning or purpose. It is not the unfolding expres- sion of Human Destiny or a Divine plan, or even a set of natural laws. The only meaning is that which we create by acts of will. To have a meaningful life we have to act. But we should act without hope. Acting is meaningful but it doesn’t create meaning that lasts beyond the acts themselves or beyond our own lifetime. You are what you do – while you are doing it – and then nothing. (Very depressing. ) In The Myth of Sisyphus, Albert Camus (pronounced â€Å"Kam-moo†) (1913-1960) describes life as a kind of hopeless, endless, uphill labor. Hence, the only true problem is that of suicide. Yet, he rejects nihilism; for the human being must fight and never accept defeat. The problem is to be a saint without a God. The last judgment takes place everyday. The human being must do his best, try for what he can within the confinements of his situation. Camus describes Sisyphus condemned by the gods to push a stone up a hill over and over, only to have it roll back down each time he reaches the top. A task that can never be completed. But he finds meaning in the fact that Sisyphus at least gets to decide each time whether to carry on or end it all. Camus says, â€Å"The struggle itself toward the heights is enough to fill a man’s heart. One must imagine Sisyphus happy. † Although there can never be any meaning in Sisy- phus’ task, there is meaning is choosing each time to continue. Despite encompassing a staggering range of phi- losophical, religious, and political ideologies, the underlying concepts of existentialism are simple: Mankind has free will. Life is a series of choices, creating stress. Few decisions are without any negative conse- quences. Some things are irrational or absurd, without explanation. If one makes a decision, he or she must follow through. Notes on Existentialism by Tanweer Akram. The fundamental problem of existentialism is con- cerned with the study of being. The human being’s existence is the first and basic fact; the human be- ing has no essence that comes before his existence. The human being, as a being, is nothing. This nothingness and the non-existence of an essence is the central source of the freedom the human being faces in each and every moment. The human being Notes on Existentialism Compiled for PSY 345 (Fall 2004) Existentialism Notes 2 has liberty in view of his situation, in decisions which makes himself and sets himself to solves his problems and live in the world. Thrown into the world, the human being is con- demned to be free. The human being must take this freedom of being and the responsibility and guilt of his actions. Each action negates the other possible courses of action and their consequences; so the human being must be accountable without excuse. The human being must not slip away from his re- sponsibilities. The human being must take deci- sions and assume responsibilities. There is no sig- nificance in this world, this universe. The human being cannot find any purpose in life; his existence is only a contingent fact. His being does not emerge from necessity. If a human being rejects the false pretensions, the illusions of his existence hav- ing a meaning, he encounters the absurdity, the fu- tility of life. The human being’s role in the world is not predetermined or fixed; every person is com- pelled to make a choice. Choice is one thing the human being must make. The trouble is that most often the human being refuses to choose. Hence, he cannot realize his freedom and the futility of his existence. Basically existence is of two types: authentic and inauthentic forms of existence. Authentic existence is contrasted with dynamic and is the being-for- itself, rising from the human being’s bad faith, by which the human being moves away from the bur- den of responsibility, through this beliefs in dogma and by regarding himself as subject to outside in- fluences and his actions to be predetermined. There is a striking contrast between the authentic and the inauthentic forms of being; the authentic being is the being of the human being and the inau- thentic being is the being for things. Yet, authentic being is only rarely attained by the human being; still it is what the human being must strive to gain. The inauthentic being-in-itself is characteristically distinctive of things; it is what the human being is diseased with for his failure to see himself as and act according as a free agent and his impotency to reject bad faith. Things are only what they are. But the human being is what can be. Things are deter- mined, fixed, and rigid; the human being is free; he can add essence to his life in the course of his life and he is in a constant state of flux and is able to comprehend his situation. The human being does not live in a pre-determined world; the human be- ing is free to realize his aims, to materialize his dreams; hence, he has only the destiny he forges for himself because in this world nothing happens out of necessity. The human being hides himself from freedom by self-deception, acting like a thing, as if he is a pas- sive subject, instead of realizing the authentic be- ing for the human being; this is bad faith. In bad faith, the human being shelter himself from re- sponsibility by not noticing the dimensions of al- ternative courses of action facing him; in bad faith, the human being behaves as others demand of him by conforming to the standards of accepted values and by adopting roles designed for him; in bad faith, the human being loses the autonomy of his moral will, his freedom to decide; in bad faith, the human being imprisons himself within inauthentic- ity for he has refused to take the challenge of re- sponsibility and the anxiety that comes along with his freedom. Anxiety ascends from the human being’s realiza- tion that the human being’s destiny is not fixed but is open to an undetermined future of infinite possi- bilities and limitless scope: The emptiness of fu- ture destiny must be filled by making choices for which he alone will assume responsibility and blame. This anxiety is present at every moment of the human being’s existence; anxiety is part and parcel of authentic existence. Anxiety leads the human being to take decisions and be committed. The human being tries to avoid this anguish through bad faith. But the free human being, in his authenticity, must be involved; for his own actions are only his, his responsibility is to himself, his being is his own. The human being must be com- mitted. To be committed means not to support this in place of that, but to attach a human being’s total- ity to a cause; it is the human being’s existential freedom that leads to total commitment. Existentialist thinkers begin from the human situa- tion in the world; the condition of despair, the modes of existence, the human being’s tendency to avoid authentic existence, his relation to things, his own body, and to other beings, with whom he can- not come into genuine communication, and the sufferings of life. Starting from the study of being, each existentialist thinkers originate their own doc- trines, with their own emphasis on particular as- pects. Very often their viewpoints is conflicting and sometimes contradictory; yet this philosophi-cal attitude of being, as a whole, can be described as the existentialist movement, which stresses upon the â€Å"being† of the human being. Existentialism Notes 3 Additional Notes on Existentialism Existentialism, philosophical movement or ten- dency, emphasizing individual existence, freedom, and choice, that influenced many diverse writers in the 19th and 20th centuries. Major Themes Because of the diversity of positions associated with existentialism, the term is impossible to define precisely. Certain themes common to virtually all existentialist writers can, however, be identified. The term itself suggests one major theme: the stress on concrete individual existence and, consequently, on subjectivity, individual freedom, and choice. Moral Individualism Most philosophers since Plato have held that the highest ethical good is the same for everyone; inso- far as one approaches moral perfection, one resem- bles other morally perfect individuals. The 19th- century Danish philosopher Soren Kierkegaard, who was the first writer to call himself existential, reacted against this tradition by insisting that the highest good for the individual is to find his or her own unique vocation. As he wrote in his journal, â€Å"I must find a truth that is true for me . . . the idea for which I can live or die. † Other existentialist writers have echoed Kierkegaard’s belief that one must choose one’s own way without the aid of universal, objective standards. Against the traditional view that moral choice involves an objective judgment of right and wrong, existentialists have argued that no objective, rational basis can be found for moral decisions. The 19th-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche further contended that the indi- vidual must decide which situations are to count as moral situations. SubjectivityAll existentialists have followed Kierkegaard in s tressing the importance of passionate individual action in deciding questions of both morality and truth. They have insisted, accordingly, that per- sonal experience and acting on one’s own convic- tions are essential in arriving at the truth. Thus, the understanding of a situation by someone involved in that situation is superior to that of a detached, objective observer. This emphasis on the perspec- tive of the individual agent has also made existen- tialists suspicious of systematic reasoning. Kierke- gaard, Nietzsche, and other existentialist writers have been deliberately unsystematic in the exposi- tion of their philosophies, preferring to express themselves in aphorisms, dialogues, parables, and other literary forms. Despite their antirationalist position, however, most existentialists cannot be said to be irrationalists in the sense of denying all validity to rational thought. They have held that rational clarity is desirable wherever possible, but that the most important questions in life are not accessible to reason or science. Furthermore, they have argued that even science is not as rational as is commonly supposed. Nietzsche, for instance, asserted that the scientific assumption of an orderly universe is for the most part a useful fiction. Choice and Commitment Perhaps the most prominent theme in existentialist writing is that of choice. Humanity’s primary dis- tinction, in the view of most existentialists, is the freedom to choose. Existentialists have held that human beings do not have a fixed nature, or es- sence, as other animals and plants do; each human being makes choices that create his or her own na- ture. In the formulation of the 20th-century French philosopher Jean Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence. Choice is therefore central to human exis- tence, and it is inescapable; even the refusal to choose is a choice. Freedom of choice entails com- mitment and responsibility. Because individuals are free to choose their own path, existentialists have argued, they must accept the risk and respon- sibility of following their commitment wherever it leads. Dread and Anxiety Kierkegaard held that it is spiritually crucial to rec- ognize that one experiences not only a fear of spe- cific objects but also a feeling of general apprehen- sion, which he called dread. He interpreted it as God’s way of calling each individual to make a commitment to a personally valid way of life. The word anxiety (German Angst) has a similarly cru- cial role in the work of the 20th-century German philosopher Martin Heidegger; anxiety leads to the individual’s confrontation with nothingness and with the impossibility of finding ultimate justifica- tion for the choices he or she must make. In the philosophy of Sartre, the word nausea is used for the individual’s recognition of the pure contin- gency of the universe, and the word anguish is used for the recognition of the total freedom of choice that confronts the individual at every mo- ment. Existentialism Notes 4 History Existentialism as a distinct philosophical and liter- ary movement belongs to the 19th and 20th centu- ries, but elements of existentialism can be found in the thought (and life) of Socrates, in the Bible, and in the work of many premodern philosophers and writers. Pascal The first to anticipate the major concerns of mod- ern existentialism was the 17th-century French phi- losopher Blaise Pascal. Pascal rejected the rigorous rationalism of his contemporary Rene Descartes, asserting, in his Pensees (1670), that a systematic philosophy that presumes to explain God and hu- manity is a form of pride. Like later existentialist writers, he saw human life in terms of paradoxes: The human self, which combines mind and body, is itself a paradox and contradiction. Kierkegaard Kierkegaard, generally regarded as the founder of modern existentialism, reacted against the system- atic absolute idealism of the 19th-century German philosopher G. W. F. Hegel, who claimed to have worked out a total rational understanding of hu- manity and history. Kierkegaard, on the contrary, stressed the ambiguity and absurdity of the human situation. The individual’s response to this situation must be to live a totally committed life, and this commitment can only be understood by the indi- vidual who has made it. The individual therefore must always be prepared to defy the norms of soci- ety for the sake of the higher authority of a person- ally valid way of life. Kierkegaard ultimately advo- cated a â€Å"leap of faith† into a Christian way of life, which, although incomprehensible and full of risk, was the only commitment he believed could save the individual from despair. Nietzsche Nietzsche, who was not acquainted with the work of Kierkegaard, influenced subsequent existential- ist thought through his criticism of traditional metaphysical and moral assumptions and through his espousal of tragic pessimism and the life- affirming individual will that opposes itself to the moral conformity of the majority. In contrast to Kierkegaard, whose attack on conventional moral- ity led him to advocate a radically individualistic Christianity, Nietzsche proclaimed the â€Å"death of God† and went on to reject the entire Judeo- Christian moral tradition in favor of a heroic pagan ideal. Heidegger Heidegger, like Pascal and Kierkegaard, reacted against an attempt to put philosophy on a conclu- sive rationalistic basis—in this case the phenome- nology of the 20th-century German philosopher Edmund Husserl. Heidegger argued that humanity finds itself in an incomprehensible, indifferent world. Human beings can never hope to under- stand why they are here; instead, each individual must choose a goal and follow it with passionate conviction, aware of the certainty of death and the ultimate meaninglessness of one’s life. Heidegger contributed to existentialist thought an original em- phasis on being and ontology as well as on lan- guage. Sartre Sartre first gave the term existentialism general currency by using it for his own philosophy and by becoming the leading figure of a distinct move- ment in France that became internationally influen- tial after World War II. Sartre’s philosophy is ex- plicitly atheistic and pessimistic; he declared that human beings require a rational basis for their lives but are unable to achieve one, and thus human life is a â€Å"futile passion. † Sartre nevertheless insisted that his existentialism is a form of humanism, and he strongly emphasized human freedom, choice, and responsibility. He eventually tried to reconcile these existentialist concepts with a Marxist analy- sis of society and history. Existentialism and Theology Although existentialist thought encompasses the uncompromising atheism of Nietzsche and Sartre and the agnosticism of Heidegger, its origin in the intensely religious philosophies of Pascal and Kierkegaard foreshadowed its profound influence on 20th-century theology. The 20th-century Ger- man philosopher Karl Jaspers, although he rejected explicit religious doctrines, influenced contempo- rary theology through his preoccupation with tran- scendence and the limits of human experience. The German Protestant theologians Paul Tillich and Rudolf Bultmann, the French Roman Catholic theologian Gabriel Marcel, the Russian Orthodox philosopher Nikolay Berdyayev, and the German Jewish philosopher Martin Buber inherited many Existentialism Notes 5 of Kierkegaard’s concerns, especially that a per- sonal sense of authenticity and commitment is es- sential to religious faith. Existentialism and Literature A number of existentialist philosophers used liter- ary forms to convey their thought, and existential- ism has been as vital and as extensive a movement in literature as in philosophy. The 19th-century Russian novelist Fyodor Dostoyevsky is probably the greatest existentialist literary figure. In Notes from the Underground (1864), the alienated anti- hero rages against the optimistic assumptions of rationalist humanism. The view of human nature that emerges in this and other novels of Dostoyevsky is that it is unpredictable and per- versely self-destructive; only Christian love can save humanity from itself, but such love cannot be understood philosophically. As the character Alyo- sha says in The Brothers Karamazov (1879-80), â€Å"We must love life more than the meaning of it. † In the 20th century, the novels of the Austrian Jew- ish writer Franz Kafka, such as The Trial (1925; trans. 1937) and The Castle (1926; trans. 1930), present isolated men confronting vast, elusive, menacing bureaucracies; Kafka’s themes of anxi- ety, guilt, and solitude reflect the influence of Kierkegaard, Dostoyevsky, and Nietzsche. The in- fluence of Nietzsche is also discernible in the nov- els of the French writers Andre Malraux and in the plays of Sartre. The work of the French writer Al- bert Camus is usually associated with existential- ism because of the prominence in it of such themes as the apparent absurdity and futility of life, the indifference of the universe, and the necessity of engagement in a just cause. Existentialist themes are also reflected in the theater of the absurd, nota- bly in the plays of Samuel Beckett and Eugene Ionesco. In the United States, the influence of exis- tentialism on literature has been more indirect and diffuse, but traces of Kierkegaard’s thought can be found in the novels of Walker Percy and John Up- dike, and various existentialist themes are apparent in the work of such diverse writers as Norman Mailer, John Barth, and Arthur Miller. Conclusion Existentialists make endless claims. They never bother to show how they reached their claims or if these are, indeed, true. The existentialists when he pretends to present a representation of reality pro- vides no cognition; unverifiable assertions may well express powerful and even necessary emo- tions and passions, but that’s best left to the arts and literature. Existentialism is a highly passionate philosophy and, from the outset, seems to aim at a dynamic and fashionable life-style. Also it is mostly unsys- tematic and pays little attention to logic or science. Whatever one makes of its metaphysical claims, one cannot deny that existentialism was able to provide a moving account of the spirit of the con- temporary world and the nausea and frustration of survival. Indeed, it is basically for its richness in psychological insight and its impact on culture that existentialist philosophy will continued to be stud- ied.

Chinese family businesses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Chinese family businesses - Essay Example As a direct consequence of Confucianism, Chinese culture therefore places collective interests over individual interests. Their "socialistic philosophy teaches that the good of all is everyone's concern" (Ralston, Holt, and Terpstra, 1997, p.7). This is in contrast with the Western concept of individual achievement and self-worth. This collective orientation is also evident in the manner that Confucian ideals place emphasis on the importance of family, such that most Chinese businesses are also family businesses. This collective orientation, however, is rooted not on the basis of emotional attachment to a group, but rather on "the web of reciprocal or moral relations in which one finds oneself, [and] defines oneself", apart from which "one can have no real identity" (De Bary, 1991, p.3). Thus, for the Chinese, "the virtue of humanity is meaningless unless it is involved in actual human relationships" (Chan, 1963, p.104). This focus on collective interests, bound by interpersonal relationships, is a crucial focal point businessmen must take into consideration for a successful business relationship with the Chinese. It implies that the collective group given emphasis is not exclusive, such that non-Chinese can penetrate it, provided that they build good interpersonal relationships, or 'guanxi'.

Information systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Information systems - Essay Example In the case of a price war, a firm can maintain profitability as the competitors suffer losses. The low-cost strategy broadens the profit margin and targets a broad market (Griffin, 2007). The differentiation strategy concerns with offering products that possess different unique attributes. This strategy enables a firm to sell almost the same products to different markets and carry price discrimination across markets (Spulber, 2007). In the focus strategy, a firm sells and customizes unique marketing techniques to suit different markets. In the low-cost focus strategy, a firm specializes in a given market. It is essential to highlight that Coca Cola mainly uses the differentiation strategy while Toyota employs the low-cost strategy. In this sense, they gear their information systems towards meeting such competitive strategies. Toyota, in the lean manufacturing technique, uses globalized and automated information systems in enabling quick delivery of products across the world. Coca Cola, on the other hand, uses its information system towards market research. It employs the social media and mobile applications in understanding its market

The National Fire Academy and CDP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The National Fire Academy and CDP - Essay Example The institution also encompasses training programs that aid FEMA and DHS in prevention, mitigation and preparedness for fire and other emergency services (Giustina, 2014). Other institutions are incapacitated to offer such services, owing to their costs and audience inabilities. Individuals with substantial involvement in fire and prevention and control, emergency medical services, and other fire management-related courses are qualified to apply for various courses within the institution. Firefighting career is a tough profession, and individuals need to sacrifice themselves in order to fit in this challenging career. Initially, individuals could such climb careers through training and experience. However, as the world improves in aspects such as technology and other fields, individuals in the fire fighting profession ought to better their knowledge through rigorous training programs. Most individuals currently advance to degree levels of education. National Fire Academy offers management-training programs and they ought to select eligible candidates for such professions carefully. The institution should select individuals that have completed the basic training program for fire and other related emergencies’ preparedness, prevention and response. This will enhance improving their knowledge on fire and disaster management, hence placing them in a better position for response in case of fire and other related disasters (Giustina, 2014). Additionally, these individuals will have background information of their training prior to the management training. The Center for Domestic Preparedness is another institute under FEMA, tasked with the responsibility of training individuals for preparedness and response to disasters that result from weapons of mass destruction, (WDM) ( Burke, 2006). The institute offers its training through

Time Warner Case Study Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Time Warner Case Study - Research Paper Example Such a situation may progressively lead to market monopoly. It is obvious that a monopolistic market environment may hurt the interests of buyers, suppliers, and new market entrants. Sometimes, mergers adversely affect the feasibility of integrated organizations also if the business becomes too large because of the merger. Under such circumstances, the merger process may cause the firms to incur higher unit costs. Similarly, often huge mergers result in employee termination, which in turn, would contribute to growing unemployment issues. In short, thoughtless mergers would threaten the economic uplift of the country and, therefore, government regulation is essential in a market economy. 2. It is observed that the US government has constantly intervened in the country’s market process over the last decade, especially after the 2008-09 global financial crisis. The US government identified that accounting fraud was the root cause behind a series of corporate failures in the count ry. Hence, nowadays the US government greatly intervenes in the country’s market process on the belief that those restrictions would put a check on illegal and unfair business practices. In addition, the US debt crisis also persuaded regulators to exercise more control over the country’s market process. ... As Perry and Dell (2010) pointed out, investigations discovered that the US bank collapses were partially attributable to inefficient government control over its market operations. Policymakers believe that government intervention in the market process would assist the country to overcome the impacts of debt crisis and, thereby, promote sustainable economic growth. 3. An organization or an industry would face some additional complexities if it needs to expand its business sector by means of capital projects rather than merger strategy. Acquisition strategy is an alternative to merger and this method demands huge amounts of money. If the Time Warner proceeds with the acquisition strategy, the firm would be forced to raise huge capital in order to acquire another firm. In addition, organizational change associated with the acquisition strategy may sometimes raise potential managerial challenges to the organization. New venture expansion is another strategy for self expansion and it req uires the firm to raise abundant potential sources of capital. In case of large venture projects, Time Warner alone cannot fund its operational requirements and, thus, the firm may be forced to depend on debt financing practices. However, such policies would adversely affect the financial viability of the firm and consequently threaten the long-term sustainability of the organization (Debt financing). Furthermore, other capital projects based on self-expansional strategies may raise a series of operational difficulties to the company while entering an overseas market. It has been identified that the level of uncertainty is higher under self-expansion strategies based on capital projects other than merger process. 4. When the industry is confronted with government

World Religions. Scientology and Its Appeal Essay

World Religions. Scientology and Its Appeal - Essay Example Moreover, the term scientology can also be defined as a valuable study which tends to preserve spiritual relationship to the principles along with the universe and other creatures within the world (Wallis, n. d.). The principles and beliefs of the religion i.e. Scientology are further witnessed to increase human potentials in accordance with increasing knowledge and skills concerning true nature along with the facets of immortal beings. According to Hubbard, the founder of the religion, scientology has been defined as the science that enables each individual to know the answer of each question relating to the aforesaid aspects. Moreover, the aspect of scientology can also be viewed as an effective organized system of progression which enables every individual to efficiently address various types of problems. Additionally, the concept has also been identified as an organization which relies upon both religion and psychology. Owing to the stated concern, an appropriate utilization of i deas or knowledge considerably provides the benefit to each individual to empower innate superhuman nature. According to the philosophical principles of Scientology, major challenges of each individual that unfavorably affects in attaining desired goals encompass deficiency in confidence, physical or psychological disabilities as well as psychosomatic infirmities (Matthews, 2011). Thus, the aforesaid significant aspects eventually reveal the appeal of Scientology. 2. Contrast between Science and Religion Science and religion have long been witnessed to create unabated discussion within the era of globalization. In relation to the present globalized environment, science and religion have been witnessed as the foremost paradigms that reveal significant controversy. In this regard, the dissimilarities of these paradigms have been illustrated in the following discussion. Science can be identified as the concept of knowledge which can be generated through the illustration of practical im plementations concerning any specific subject or topic. In contrast, the concept of religion is defined as the beliefs and moral that set by any individual to improve human life and gain fundamental source of satisfaction. Moreover, it has been viewed that religion is certainly unable to involve adequate evidence concerning different beliefs and norms. However, science can be observed to act in the form of encompassing experiential evidence concerning each act performed by any individual (Hohenberg, n.d.). In relation to the modern day context, it can be apparently observed that both the paradigms i.e. science and religion have significant dissimilarities. In this regard, the aspects within religion consist of certain beliefs that engage uncertain attributes or beliefs. However, due to the nature of practicability and realistic characteristics, science significantly weakened the religious beliefs resulting in excluding adequate practical attributes (Perlovsky, n.d.). 3. Brief Overvi ew of Globalization and Role of Atheism With regard to the gaining momentum of internationalization in this present day context, it can be widely viewed that the increased level of knowledge along with the perception of individuals play a decisive part in enhancing the force of globalization by a greater level. Moreover, the fierce development of human knowledge along with the greater involvement of scientific and technological aspects had radically provided adequate support to different individuals to increase his/her potential to achieve their respective desired goals and objectives. However, it is obvious that the vital aspect of atheism or avoiding beliefs of the traditional and religious aspects have also influenced more insight

Tombs for the Living, Tombs for the Dead Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Tombs for the Living, Tombs for the Dead - Essay Example Archeology, through  cultural-history archaeology, bioarcheaology, post-processual archaeology, mortuary archaeology, etc. presents various theories that aim for the â€Å"recovery, restoration† and surfacing of ancient cultures, and learning how they changed (Dannenfeldt 8). They also focus on learning about the ancient histories as well as studying their reflexivity. The research paper at hand focuses on addressing the question of whether the rituals of death are reflective of the living or the dead. Rituals of death, no matter which culture they belong to, are performed by the living for the dead; therefore, it can be construed that these rituals are reflective of both the living and the dead. The human thinking process and thoughts evolve as time goes by, thus new theories are developed, which seem to be able to fill the gap of disadvantages left by earlier theories. In the same way, there have been certain changes or movements in the train of thought of the archaeologic al theory, which have led to the discovery and development of different theories or disciplines of this study. These theories or disciplines, albeit differing in only some aspects from one another, have their own unique orientation and goals that further help in revealing mysteries regarding the people of the past. First among these comes the cultural-history archeological approach developed in the nineteenth century, which basically deals with elucidating why cultures were modified or adapted according to various beliefs, and it also aims to highlight historical particularism. During the 1960s, this approach was challenged through the approach called â€Å"New Archeology,† or processual archeology, and its focus was to make studies in a more scientific and anthropological manner, thus inculcating various scientific methods and statistical analysis such as hypothesis testing etc. However, two decades later, a new approach to archeological theory evolved and it questioned the impartiality and scientific positivism which were emphasized in the previous one. This was a post-modern movement and was known as post-processual archeology, and it believed in self-critical theories and reflexivity of various cultures. However, each approach has its own pitfalls and shortcomings and as of now, a perfect approach is yet to be discovered. Despite various shortcomings, it is these approaches and disciplines to archeology that enable one to understand the lifestyle, cultural beliefs, norms and traditions of his or her great ancestors. Such archeological disciplines include bioarcheology which aims to study about human cultures and their histories, and mortuary archeology which focuses on researching about funerary practices involved in various cultures, their beliefs about after life, etc. Thus, with the help of different aspects of archeology, man is able to know about ancient cultures, histories, traditions, ways of life, beliefs and practices of his great forefathe rs. Mortuary archeology presents a good question of whether the funerary rites, or the rituals of the dead, are actually for the living or for the dead. In a general context, every culture has its own funerary practices and rituals to honor the deceased, and some of them share similarities. Culture is one of the most important identities of man, and it is this culture that presents various values and traditions to be followed during the lifetime of the individual. In that sense, it is

Bates Motel Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Bates Motel Analysis - Essay Example Given that monopolists have control over price, quality, and output, they therefore maximizes on the economic returns. In the short-run, monopolists enjoy supernormal profits given that they are price makers. Monopolists are profit maximizers and choose their equilibrium level of output and price at the point where marginal revenue equals to marginal cost (MR=MC) (Stackelberg, Bazin, Urch, & Hill, 2011). A practical example of industries that enjoy monopoly power is the electricity and power generation industries. The energy sector enjoys patent rights and protection that give it monopoly power. Therefore, the industry only prices at the point where marginal cost of production matches marginal revenue generated from the sales. Under perfectly competitive market, the equilibrium prices are naturally determined by the market forces of demand and supply with no single player having power to influence the prevailing prices, hence no price exploitation (Goldberg, 2000). Secondly, this market structure is characterized by production and allocative efficiency since they produce at the point where price equals marginal cost (P=MC) and produces quality products that are homogeneous in nature (Stackelberg, Bazin, Urch, & Hill, 2011). This market structure therefore produces a pareto optimal level of output and price that eliminates dead weight loss to both consumers and suppliers. One of such markets includes textile manufacturing industry that is characterized by free entry and exit. Given many buyers and sellers, consumers therefore benefit from high quality cloths and clothes at relatively affordable prices as no seller will benefit by increasing price above the equilibrium market rates. Monopolistic Competition is a media form of market structure that is dominated by advertising. This owes to the fact that monopolistic competition market structure deals in

There could be a trouble ahead Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

There could be a trouble ahead - Article Example From the article, it is clear that different economists have diverse opinion on the way to manage economic crisis. Whereas some argue that expansionary measures are the best to undertake, others view contraction measures feasible in correcting economic anomalies. Whichever the policy adopted, the end result should be recovery of the slow pace of growth (Chinn & Frieden, 2011). The article further compares the mitigation strategies pursued by different economies and the way they messed in the process. From the article, the author tries to justify his version that the lessons learnt in the 1930s depression helped in salvaging the 2008 economic depression. The author elucidates this by giving figures of the rate of unemployment, interest rates, currency rates, and contagion caused in the financial markets in both the depression and the recession (1936, 1938). From the analysis, it is evident that the expansionary policies that were employed in 2008 recession had better impacts than the contractionary policies in the 1930s recession (Krugman, 2009). In all instances, monetary policy was important in controlling the supply of money, exchange rates fluctuations and bringing smooth operations of the financial market. Fiscal policies were also crucial in stimulating growth hence increasing rate of employment and investment (2009). Debt management and control must also be checked in managing the depression. The fact that the author has extensively and concisely dissected the comparison makes me agree that the article is right. The facts have been well substantiated with figures and correct economic theories and knowledge. In my opinion, the periods of recession and depressions demands policies that stimulates growth and controls the level of debt while keeping the financial sector sound. In conclusion, Obama’s administration learned from the failure of the Roosevelt regime thus

Ethics and Abortion Essay Example for Free

Ethics and Abortion Essay Nicky was 18 when she started dating with James. They had unprotected premarital sex. After a few weeks, she found out that she was pregnant so she asked an advice from her doctor. She wasn’t ready for a baby yet. She still had her ambitions in life and she didn’t want to give up her social life. So she and James decided to abort the baby (Real Life: Abortion (Nickys Story), 2003). Yes, you read it right. In this time of one-night stands, premarital sex and unwanted pregnancies, abortion has become a common resort from responsibility. Abortion is the removal of an embryo or a POC (Product of Conception) from the uterus. Basically, there are two types of abortion: the spontaneous abortion and the induced abortion. Spontaneous abortion is the type that is caused by accident and/or by natural cases. It can also be caused by environmental factors. On the other hand, induced abortion is caused by human action. It is further categorized into therapeutic and elective. Therapeutic abortion is the act of removing the fetus from the uterus for reasons of safety and/or survival in the part of the mother, to preserve the mother’s health, to terminate pregnancy that would result in a child born with congenital disorders, and to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks regarding multiple pregnancies. Meanwhile, elective abortion is the kind of abortion performed for any other reason. There are two different but parallel theories regarding abortion—the consequential theory and the deontology theory. The consequential theory believes that an act is morally right if and only if it contributes to the common good(Williams, 1973. ). It outrightly supports abortion—may it be therapeutic or elective. In therapeutic abortion, if the mother life is at risk in having the pregnancy, then the consequential theory allows for such action. If having a baby destroys a person’s future career, then abortion is okay. Consequential theory denies that moral rightness depends solely on the anything other than the consequences (B. Hooker, 2000). Nonetheless, what makes this morally wrong is not the abortion itself but the consequences it may bring to the mother such as emotional trauma. Consequential theory ignores all morally relevant factors to the consequences as opposed to whatever the circumstances there may be(Mill, 1861). However, deontology theory asserts otherwise. Deontological ethics or duty-based ethics does not consider an act as good or evil per se but classifies the action as it is being performed or on the process of performing devoid of prejudice or pre-established ethical principles. It judges morality by evaluating the nature of the actions and the will of the person involved rather than what is achieved(Kay, 1997). It is also known as nonconsequentialism. Deontological judgment depends on the object or original nature of the act. It typically involves two important elements, prerogatives and constraints. Prerogatives deny that one should always choose the option with optimistic consequences and constraints place limitations on the actions that the person may do in order to bring about his own personal good. Thus, from the deontological parlance, abortion, because it takes away life, upsets nature’s way of creation, and denies the natural capacity of a woman to give birth, is objectively and intentionally malicious, although it could be justified in extreme cases which would merit for an exception. These two theories, in essence are different but somehow, they are compatible with each other. They do not really contradict each other, rather, they are analogous. Analogous theories are truly and essentially different but necessarily contradictory with each other in principle but they could have similar effects or conclusion per application that is why they are analogouspartly the same, partly different. In the present society, most women view abortion consequentially. They justify abortion by consequences it may cause. Let’s take Nicky’s situation as an example. Nicky believes that the abortion of their baby is right mainly because it was not yet the right time for them to have a baby. If she were to continue with her pregnancy, what would have happened? She would have lived a miserable lifenot having a job or a career and tied down with a baby. What if her boyfriend James left her? Could she find another man who would readily accept her despite her past? There were lots of things to be consideredschool, financial stability, and emotional stability. These and a lot more questions ran through Nicky’s mind before she decided to go with the abortion. Obviously, it is not easy to try to confuse one’s conscience. But if we look at it closely, it is a matter of rights. Women’s rights. Everybody makes mistakes. Nicky did a mistake by engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse with her boyfriend. Nevertheless, continuing the pregnancy could also be a mistake. Abortion, when we look at its consequences, is not a mistake. According to the Women’s Rights, â€Å"women have the right to bodily integrity and autonomy†. Whether or not the woman decides to resort to abortion of the fetus inside her body, it is her right to decide on that. Aside from that, women also have the right to parenthood and marriage. Women who have committed abortion should not be discriminated by the society. True, it is not such a nice image but hey, women are humans. Women have rights—equal rights—and dignity(2006, Human Rights Watch).

Conventional Approaches To Strategic Management

Conventional Approaches To Strategic Management The aim of this essay is to critically analyse and evaluate the application, validity, limitations and uncertainties of the conventional approaches of strategic management in this rapidly changing business context. It briefly outlines strategic management as it is traditionally taught, studied and practised and how organisations determine what strategies are apt within various business environments. In keeping with the goal, the essay disputes the validity and applicability of the traditional approach in todays deconstructing situation where the opportunities and challenges make any kind of logical strategic planning fail. Through the arguments stated in this paper, a combination and a right mix of prescriptive and emergent approaches is essential and needs to be incorporated in the strategic management process for continuity. Thus conventional approaches with its pros and cons, still prevail in todays economic business context. In any business venture, strategy is a vital factor for the efficient functioning, growth, development, continuity and success of a firm. It aims to achieve a set goal and embarks a direction for the future. Organisations require collaboration, cautious planning and the mindful implementation of planning. To maximise the effectiveness of strategies and to ensure the smooth functioning and success of the business, they have to be managed skilfully. So what is strategy? What role does strategic management play in this global economic world? The word strategy has been implicitly used in various ways even if it has been conventionally defined in only one. It is widely accepted that there is no single or universal definition of strategy, however the various descriptions of strategy allows people to manoeuvre and manipulate through this difficult pitch. Mintzberg(1994) defines strategy in 5 different ways. Plan A consciously intended course of action to ensure objectives are achieved. Ploy Basically a subset of plan and is a trick intended to outsmart or overcome an opponent or a competitor. Pattern Series of action which involves consistent behaviour over time which may or may not be intended. Position Locating the organisation within a environment. Perspective It is conceptual as well as cultural and is concerned with how an organisation itself sees and perceives the business environment. The above 5 Ps may be applicable in vastly different areas and can also be interrelated. Johnson Scholes (2008) defines strategy as the direction and scope of an enterprise over the long term; which achieves advantage for the firm through arrangement of resources within a demanding environment, to meet the needs of the markets and accomplish the expectations of the stakeholders. The process of strategic management includes analysis of the internal and external environment, formation of strategy, implementation of strategy, and evaluation of strategy. The theory of strategic management is analysed within an integrated model of context, content and process. There are two approaches for organisational change: The Prescriptive Approach which works best in a stable environment and Emergent Approaches which is used in an unpredictable fashion. These approaches are the widely known strategic models and must be examined thoroughly within the context of the fast paced, highly competitive and increasingly dynamic business environment. The prescriptive approach, also known as deliberate strategy is a traditional approach to strategic management. It is a deterministic and systematic plan of action designed to achieve a specific goal for the long term. It is usually the responsibility of the top management to establish lucid strategic directions through analysis and evaluation and then implement them through the successive layers of the organisation. Porter(1996) states that competitive strategies are about an intended course of action of being different from the rivals and differentiating yourself in the eyes of customer by doing various unique activities which add value and by positioning yourself competitively in the environment. Porter maintains that deliberate strategies are intentional and planning ahead is important and should be formulated and articulated by leaders in a predictable and controlled environment to achieve the goals and objectives. Porter also states that trade-offs and operational effectiveness are an integral part for sustainability. Conversely, Mintzberg (1994), one of the biggest critics of prescriptive approach developed the emergent approach to strategic management. He states that in emergent strategies the final objective is unclear and it a process of evolution, adaption, alternation and continuity. Emergent strategies are more successful in this chaotic world as they are unintentional and are the result of impromptu response to unforeseen situations which emerge over time. For example, Sam Walton, the founder of Wal-Mart, decision to open his second store in a rural area rather than a big city, for convenience of logistics and management efficiency was a fantastic winning emergent strategy. Also as there was less competition and people would travel to buy products which offered value at the lowest prices, made the business successful. An emergent strategy increases flexibility in times of turbulence and allows the firm to respond to opportunities and make the most of the threats. Mintzberg argues that the emergent strategies are the result of constant learning, adjusting and experimentation of different variables. Many of the world discoveries have happened accidently and would not have taken place if it was dictated by formal planning of strategy. On a negative note, as the emergent strategy is not a systematic and linear process, formulation and implementation occur simultaneously which would lead to slow, messy and jumbled development. Brews and Hunt points out that overdependence on emergent strategy can lead to underperformance of the organisation. On the other hand, deliberate strategies are planned and put into action, however due to the unrealised and unpredictable changes in the business environment; most of the planned strategies are not implemented. SWOT gives an insight on the internal and external factors which are helpful and harmful for achievement of a specific objective of an organisation. PESTLE is an analysis of the macro environment in which the firm operates. VALUE CHAIN ANALYSIS points out the primary activities which are directly related to production of products (eg logistics, sales) and the secondary activities (eg Human Resource, technology) which are not directly involved in production, but are essential for the efficiency and effectiveness of the process. It defines the core competencies of the firm and its helps to figure out the competitive advantage over cost and its competitors by adding value to the various activities. PORTERS 5 FORCE framework is an simple but powerful tool to understand the context in which the firm operates and analyse the attractiveness and economic performance of an industry which would lead to more sustainable financial returns to the stakeholders. According to Porters bestselling book Competitive Advantage, the forces that influence the profitability of an industry in a business environment are the entry of new competitors, the bargaining power of suppliers, the threat of substitutes, the bargaining power of buyers and the rivalry amongst existing competitors. The above four are important tools in the strategic management process. Porter states that strategic management is all about plotting a way through the mesh of threats and opportunities mounted by external competitive forces. The uncertainty, chaos and instability that characterise global market contest any kind of predictibilty, which is a requisite base of many a traditional process of strategic management (Pitts, 2000). Brown Eisenhardt (1998) states that traditional approaches to strategy often collapse in the face of rapidly and unpredictability changing industries. The technological advances have accelerated the process of communication and globalisation has expanded significantly. The shift and restructuring in government policies and the recent terrorist attacks have impacted companies. The challenges of formulation and implementation of strategies within a framework where global catastrophic events have an undulating effect on local market conditions, has been underestimated by management, according to researchers. Trends in the biophysical ecosystem has changed and threatened humans and other species in various geographic areas. Events such as the terrorist attack on the twin tower building in New York on September 11, 2001, or the Tsunami in Japan has an undermining effect on the global financial markets. The rational approach to strategic management which is a top down approach helps to resolve the complexities of a firm in its stable environment. It is considered as a logical and continuous process which involves defining the mission and setting long term objectives, systematic and exhaustive analysis of the competitive environment, creating and evaluating alternative strategies, implementing the various strategies and finally monitoring the performance. Ansoff(1965) states that it helps to organise complex activities and employ a greater control over various business units which leads to domination of marketplace. This approach is founded on the idea that firms are adapted to cope with changes in their environment by taking rational and comprehensive decisions (Chaffee, 1985). Due to incapacity of predicting the future, this approach is very linear and unrealistic and is based on the thinking and assumptions of the upper level management. In a complex and unstable environment the values and the role of mainstream strategies are still unclear and may lead to more complications rather than solutions. It may weaken the flexibility of the firm to cope with prospective changes taking place in its environment (Wally Baum, 1994). In Mintzberg(1994) opinion, rational methods of strategic management leads to inflexibility, encourages excess bureaucracy and confines creativity and spontaneity. On the contrary, Ansoff(1991)argues the fact that conventional strategies are much more effective than a trial and error process when it comes to collecting and analysing relevant data and aligning the firm with its internal and external environments. Porter(1996)maintains that mainstream strategies can cleverly play a vital role in determining a suitable strategic direction for the firm. It can significantly help companies to avoid expensive errors and survive and sustain in a highly competitive environment (Aram Cowan, 1990). Adopting the conventional strategic approach, would help in ensuring a systematic assessment of numerous plausible options, encouraging creative thinking and ideas, enhancing internal interactions and communications, increasing motivation and commitment of staff, identifying pertinent opportunities, ensuring coordination of organisational activities and anticipating potential change. The size of a firm is a factor of high importance when it comes to adopting strategies. Often, strategic planning and management is considered a major tool for large enterprises. Due to its complexity, a comprehensive strategy is needed, as compared to, small and medium sized firms. In (Mintzberg, 1994)opinion, smaller firms operates in less complex environments and their internal operations and procedures are manageable by a smaller hierarchy, hence they abandon the formal strategy process. Smaller businesses would do well if they adopt emergent strategies especially in turbulent periods. The conventional strategies are based on a sole quantitative purpose and are very cold and give little or practically no consideration to human factor (Muchinsky, 2000). It fails to utilise people as the competitive advantage of the firm. Due to the traditional approaches to strategy, many organisations fail to realise the potential of their people, inspite of the rhetoric claim that people are the firms real strategic asset (Gratton,2000). Truss(1999) argues that a healthy organisation can be formed by incorporating humanistic principles and by aligning strategic human resource management with the rational conceptualisation of strategies, thereby evoking behaviours necessary to individual growth and effectiveness of the organisation. Along with the Human Resource of a firm, leaders too play a central role in achieving people based competitive advantage in modern organisations. The conventional approaches to leadership either is transactional reward the employee in exchange of desir able results or contingent identify leaders based on the circumstances of the firm and execution of specific strategies(Landrum, Howell Paris, 2000). Eisenbach, Watson Pillai(2000) states that these approaches are insufficient and advocates transformational leadership as the apt approach. Guest Schepers,( 1997, p 37) considers a transformational leader as a person who brings about change by formulation of a vision for the future and means of realising this mission by communication and necessary action. A leaders vision should also consider the essential interests of the key stakeholders of the organisation along with the employees needs such as growth and motivation (Ford Ford,1994). Beugre(2006) states that a transformational leader should exhibit individualised attention, positivity, encourage logical thinking and inspire the followers for team unity. Steve Jobs of Apple and Bill Gates of Microsoft are classic examples of transformational leaders who have achieved momentous s uccess with a articulate vision which have persuaded their followers (Giladi, 2000). Participation of share holders in formulation of strategies is crucial. Freeman (1984) defines stakeholders as any individual or group who can affect or is affected by the achievement of an organisations objective. It is intended to explain and guide the structure and operation of the established organisation. Many traditional strategy tools have ignored some shareholders, sidelined others and constantly traded off the interests of others against preferred shareholder group. This approach may be suitable in stable environments. However, in a dynamic, volatile and fast changing business world, the limitation of this approach becomes increasingly evident. Integration of shareholder interests into the very rationale of the firm and exploring, managing and balancing relationship with shareholders must be managed in a lucid and strategic fashion to ensure long term success of the firm. Incorporating value based management system, understanding morality and ethics play a significant role i n the enhanced performance and profitability of the firm in the long run. Ansoff(1965) contrasts that stakeholders might be a barrier on the objective and actions of the enterprise and might constraint the development of the firm. With the advent of the 21st century and the emergence of digitisation, globalisation and new technology traditional strategic tools like value chain analysis, Porters 5 forces, have become less useful. In todays varied business world, there is a need for strategists to develop more comprehensive and reasonable measures for better performance and must consider a wider array of industry organisations, bases of competitive advantage and higher level of complexity and uncertainty. As the industry conditions progresses or changes, strategies should also evolve. Scenario Analysis differs from the traditional approach and is a contemporary approach to strategic management which analyses the possible future events by taking into consideration alternative plausible outcomes that the future may unfold. It is not about predicting or projecting the future but a means of learning and improving our understanding of the long term global effects of the current trends and their interrelation considering the uncertainties and volatilities in the business context; which helps a company to make flexible long term plans. The traditional approaches rely on the notion that the future will be very similar to the past and present and works in a relatively stable environment, however scenarios help managers to prepare for the future and improve their decision making ability by stimulating out of the box thinking. The well known example of this methodology would be of Royal Dutch Shell, who by implementation of scenario planning was the only energy company to su rvive and sustain the oil price crisis in the 1970s. Scenario techniques if combined with other approaches can In summary, the traditional approaches to strategic management provide a structured and orderly approach to decision making in the strategic making process. These approaches still constitute a basic indispensable and feasible framework; however it is not sufficient alone for the profitability of a firm. Contemporary strategic approaches should be incorporated in the base model to make it more entrepreneurial and adaptable. Though the dynamic approaches can prevent control over action and may jeopardise a lack of direction, it considers the uncertainty of the future and emphasises on the flexibility of reaction to enhance the functionality of the organisation in this fast growing, turbulent and uncertain world. In essence there is no one size fits all or best approach to strategy. The organisations should adapt and align the conventional strategies such as internal and external analysis with the real time techniques to ensure continuity and facilitate organisational and individual lea rning. The management should seek the best way of combination, customisation and balance of elements from both the approaches for survival and sustainability in this tumultuous world. Rather than using the approaches individually and in isolation, they should complement each other in order to handle the intricacies of the business and still succeed over the changing conditions.

Measuring Happiness And Influences On Happiness Philosophy Essay

Measuring Happiness And Influences On Happiness Philosophy Essay Measuring happiness is a subjective study in determining what values that people use to consider themselves truly happy. Happiness in general depends on many factors: the persons expectations, the uncertainty of the result, how much control a person feels he or she has over the result, comparison with other results, alternative ways to get a result, how a person values the results and the persons goals in general (Hewson 41). How happy a person is can depend on what the person expected from any given outcome in relation to events. For example, if the happiness factor is measured by how much value is seen in an object or event, as minus how much value was expected from the same result, then, there is a gap between what the person got and what the person expected to get. This is somewhat like the profit measured in a business deal, Profit = Income Costs (Hewson 43). Therefore, deciding if a person is happy or not depends on whether the same person sees or values an event as positive o r negative, if the result was expected and anticipated, and if the result made the person satisfied or not after the event has passed. Our culture measures happiness by how successful a person is in relation to money earned. In this way, there is a value put on the idea of being successful, having money in the bank and having made it. But many scientists state that once a person has escaped poverty, the more money he or she accumulates will not necessarily buy more happiness for the person, and there will not be a value relation on happiness (Chatzky 28). It is fascinating to note that theres little difference in the overall happiness of millionaires and the middle classà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.if you are going to spend your money in search of greater happiness, youre better off buying experiences rather than things (Chatzky 28). Many people may agree that our experiences mellow and become more pleasant over time, and even if they are unreasonably embellished, they are still pleasant to recall. In this way, it is considered valuable to have had a relaxing vacation, or spend time with family or explore a new place in the pers ons home town. Some tips to happiness are to find bliss in everyday items by paying attention to the smaller aspects of life, and enjoying the anticipation of preparing for and experiencing a new event. In this way, people can appreciate and measure the value of finding joy in everyday tasks, and living well even with less money. Even biology and genetics can contribute to achieving and finding the value of happiness in our lives. Because the human brain is only 38% developed at birth (unlike other mammals, which are 98% developed at birth), humans need nurturing, enjoy grappling with ideas, sharing their thoughts and improving their education to allow them the essentials for finding happiness in their lives (Foran 573). This is valuable because most people prefer to be challenged, and look for ways to push themselves to achieve, whether in extreme sports, or in working overtime at their jobs to experience the satisfaction of finishing a project on time there is definite value in achievements that lead to a feeling of having conquered something. Happiness is also measured best by being assessed on how people feel on average over a long period of time (Layard 25). It is necessary to study the moods of the masses and determine if their feelings are happy or not, as well as determining if they place a high value on those feelings in general. In one study, women were seen to be happiest at meal times and at the end of the day, which confirms that many people are happiest when they are alone, without the company of others. When looking at the happiness factor of different countries, it is seen that if the average income per person is less than $15,000 per year, any extra money gained will tend to make the person happier. But if the average income is well above this level, a persons happiness seems to be independent of incomeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the average American is much richer than the average Icelander or Dane, but also less happy (Layard 25). The reason behind the disparity is that people are always comparing themselves to others, and the stakes are continually rising, keeping real happiness just out of their reach. The two factors most people use to measure their happiness in regards to family income, is that people compare the income that they receive to the income that other people receive, to see if they measure up to or make more money than the other person does. The reference group used by most people is usually a neighbor or group of friends, as opposed to making comparisons to celebrated figures with abnormally high salaries. People also value the time they have to relax to pursue their leisure activities such as: socializing, exercising, meditation, watching TV, preparing food, childcare, internet/mail, doing housework, or commuting to work (Layard 26). These small tasks are what make up the average persons day, but any one task on its own would be considered valuable as a tool for relaxation. For people who consider themselves happy, the absence of any co-variation over time, in regards to their economic situation maintaining stability, would indicate that the measure of happiness lacks validity (Hellevik 243). For people living in Norway, for example, note that their health and family situation have a stronger effect on their happiness, more than any other factor. Happiness was measured as a value in the persons life, if the person did not have to worry about his or her subjective well-being. This meant that the person was less fearful regarding crime, burglary, theft or assaults, terrorism or any other kind of environmental threat to the country (Norway) in general if the person was in good health and had strong familial ties. It has been said in songs and ballads that the simple pleasures of life are the ones that produce the highest factor of joy for those experiencing them (Sikka 515). In bygone primitive societies, humans living tribal family lives felt the deep feelings of being within a loving group, and feeling happy with the connection to others. It is also said that people experienced satisfaction in primitive times, and felt happy in the way common to any living creature, since human beingsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦were destined by God for a life of harmony and innocent contentment (Sikka 517). Humans also find value in the necessity for labor and physical activity. By using physical effort, the use of the senses, and exercising understanding, attention, memory and decision, this makes up the persons spirit or inner life-force, allowing the reward of such activities to bring happiness and joy (Sikka 526). It is true that happiness is measured in different ways in other cultures. In non-Western cultures, happiness is considered a vague notion which has a general meaning of the person experiencing positive factors and a good life. In fact, the word happiness did not appear in the Chinese language until recently, with happiness being measured as high if the person had longevity, prosperity, health, peace, virtue and a comfortable death as the best values in life (Luo 479). Asian cultures believe that, according to the Yin-Yang theory, there are two universal concepts or opposite forms of nature which control all creations. These forces are constantly changing and evolving, and it is the basis of Taoism theory, which states that well-being is achieved with balance within these forces of nature. The Chinese also believe in dualism, that is where two systems represent the wisdom of the laboring masses and the wisdom of the educated elite, offering different ethics for common and learned peo ple. This wisdom would compare the happiness quotient of a common person to an educated person and the values would be considered subjective for each group. Also, Confucian philosophy shows that the life of each individual person is only a link to the persons ancestors, and each person continues where the ancestors left off (Luo 479). This idea is more than simple reincarnation, it puts the family at the center of a persons life, and makes maintaining relationships in the family unit a priority and measure of happiness. People also value happiness by valuing the health of their family. This is because having better health allows a person to live more happily, earn more money at a job, and spend more on health care for the benefit of better health benefits overall (de Mello Tiongson 594). If a family member (or the person him or herself) is in poor health, this will affect the calculation one would make to determine and measure overall happiness. The happiest people when surveyed on a 10-point life-satisfaction scale, were those who actually earned less money than slightly less happier respondents (Stinchfield 56). These results show that it is an unrealistic expectation to be superhappy, and instead it is more realistic to be somewhat happy with life in general. For people who are moderately happy, it means that they are likelier to try harder to change their lives for the better, such as finding a new job in a different career or performing better at school. When deciding what really matters, it is necessary to prioritize, look for the real meaning of matters or mysteries, seek to nurture a positive attitude, connect with the spirit and inner being, ask if happiness is possible, look for the meaning of life in the right places and being kind to others which all serve to find value in life and happiness in a persons life in general (Ardell 1). Who among us is happy and has found the value of happiness? The unhappiest countries in the world, as determined by a study by Borooah performed in 2006, were the former countries of the Soviet Union and the Eastern European bloc, since seventeen of the 20 unhappiest countries were in this category (Borooah 483). The other three unhappiest countries were Zimbabwe (because of a repressive dictator), Iran (a theocracy) and China (a communist country) (Borooah 483). The happiest countries of the world (at the time of this study) were Australia, New Zealand, Canada and the USA, with Latin American countries running as close second, and including South Africa, Tanzania, Nigeria, and a few Asian countries such as Singapore and Vietnam. Therefore, the measurement of happiness globally depends on the value that the person deciding on happiness puts on the events experienced daily in life. People have the choice to become happy, value everyday experiences and seek positive meanings from their lives for a richer experience and higher quality of life overall.

Journalism Errors: Double Check The Spelling of Names and Other Facts

When Emilie Davis, a newspaper journalism professor at the S.I. Newhouse School of Public Communications at Syracuse University, picks up her nametag at an event, she often stares down at the more common spelling of her name, â€Å"Emily.† She is used to people misspelling her name, so she usually leaves it the way it’s written to not make it a big deal. As Steve Davis, Emilie Davis’s husband, explained his wife’s silent frustration when people misspell her name, he said, â€Å"it never hurts to just double check.† Steve Davis, also a newspaper journalism professor, as well as chair of the newspaper department at the Newhouse School, is very familiar with spelling mistakes and factual errors when it comes to news writing. Before coming to Newhouse, Davis had been the executive editor for the Public Opinion, the Chambersburg, Pa., community newspaper, and both national editor and Washington editor at USA Today. â€Å"It’s a miracle how few mistakes there are when you consider the hundreds and thousands of articles published every day,† Davis said. But even though he knows about all the hard work put toward error-free articles, he has still come to understand how unforgiving people can be when a journalist does make a mistake. When a person’s name is spelled wrong an article, â€Å"the reaction can be deadly,† Davis said. In a business where one must present his work to people who will examine it, and after one mistake deem it â€Å"crap,† Davis said, â€Å"it takes bravery to do that every day.† This harsh reality of the news writing industry provoked the thought process behind the Newhouse School’s spelling/grammatical/factual error grading policy in news writing and editing classes. In the first half of the introductory news ... ...licy that reveals itself during the second half of the semester. Students no longer receive an F for one error, but rather one letter-grade less than they would have received for an article with no mistakes. Students who have gotten two or three F’s on articles have still ended up getting an A in the course, Davis said, since the second half of the semester counts more than the first. â€Å"It’s all about learning,† Davis said. â€Å"If they show improvement, often the F’s from the beginning will get thrown out.† Sometimes the professors come together and say, â€Å"Should we change the policy?† Davis said. But in the end, they always agree it’s for the best. Since they won’t be changing the policy any time soon, Davis gives out a warning to students using someone’s name in an article. â€Å"Don’t take nametags for granted,† Davis said. â€Å"Remember, it never hurts to just double check.†