Understanding The Legal Systems Of The World Law Essay

Understanding The jural remainss Of The World truth EssayI truly believe that our modern alliance c both for natural rightfulness. Laws argon guidelines that set out appropriate behaviour, so we are postulate to follow this system of rules, in order to keep everything balanced and stabilized. Without the fulfilment of these desired tasks, man simply will become equal to animals or worse still, allow their darker sides to emerge and control their lives. effective transcriptions of the WorldFor this take aim every country has a plastered system that the all citizens are required to obey up to date there are approximately 2 hundred countries in the world and to each one of them makes its own Legal System that is based on certain characteristics and circumstanceors of the country. The Legal System consists of certain justices and rules that shape the citizens morality and behaviour in the beau monde. There are galore(postnominal) academic terms describing what juristic system is but from my point of prospect the best one is the description by J.H MerrymanThe three most far-flung Legal Systems are Continental Law Legal System, joint Law Legal System and Religious Law Legal System. Each of these juristic systems is unique and has its own specialized features and individual structure. Lets take a skeleton look on each system and see how systems differ from each new(prenominal) or discover their quasi(prenominal)ities.Common Law Legal SystemHistory, sources and structureThe humankind justness system prevails in Britain and its former colonies, including Australia, Canada, and the joined States. Traditionally, the common faithfulness system, as the name implies, was governed not by a code, but by court-made equity of nature that developed incrementally over meter. It is different from the urbaneian- legality system, which is introduced for the most part in Europe and in areas colonized by France and Spain.The body of decisional law ba sed largely on custom as declared by English decide after the Norman Conquest of 1066. The common law doctrine of following precedent, known as stare decisis remains an in-chief(postnominal) component of both(prenominal) the English and American legal systems today. English common law was based primarily on custom, tradition, and precedent rather than a formal written legal code. Over centuries of have got, the common law became the major influence on the development of American wicked law both before and after the American Revolution. After the Revolution, the common law go along to be the basic law of most states. However, today almost all common law principles and rules have been enacted by legislative bodies into statutes with modern variations. ). unrivalled of the interesting characteristics of the system is that the common-law system allows judges to look to other jurisdictions or to draw upon past or present judicial experience for analogies to help in making a decis ion. This flexibility allows common law to deal with changes that lead to unanticipated controversies. gracious Law Legal SystemHistory, sources and structureand developed in Continental Europe and around the world. It is dual-lane into two branches the codified Roman law and uncodified Roman law.The Differences and Similarities between the Legal SystemsCommon law and civil law legal systems share similar social objectives individualism, liberalism and personal rights. A major difference between the civil law and common law is that priority in civil law is given to doctrine over jurisprudence, while the opposite is true in the common law it finds in judge-made precedent the base of its law.The civil law doctrines function is to draw from cases the rules and the principles which will clarify and purge the result of unpurified elements, and thus provide both the practice and the courts with a guide for the issue of particular cases in the future. The common law author focuses on fa ct patterns. He or she analyzes cases presenting similar but not identical facts, extracting from the specific rules, and then, through deduction, determines the often very narrow scope of each rule, and sometimes proposes new rules to cover facts that have not yet presented themselves. Common law jurisprudence sets out a new specific rule to a new specific set of facts and provides the principal source of law, while civil law jurisprudence applies general principles, and that jurisprudence is only a supplemental source of law of explanation. Civil law judgments are written in a more formalistic style than common law judgments.Civil law decisions are indeed shorter than common law decisions, and are scattered into two parts the reasons and the order. This is because civil law judges are specially trained in special schools created for the purpose, while common law judges are appointed from amongst practicing lawyers, without special training.The method of writing judgments is al so different. Common law judgments extensively expose the facts, compare or distinguish them from the facts of anterior cases, and decide the specific legal rule relevant to the present facts. culpable Law and Civil LawBasic InformationThere are two branches of law condemnable Law and Civil Law. That means that when a person breaks any law, he or she may be judged match to what branch of law it is.Criminal Law those laws for redressing public wrongs that injure society in general and Civil Law those laws for redressing private wrongs to individuals.Civil law attempts to right a wrong, settle a dispute, or honor an agreement. The victim is being compensated by the person who is at fault, this becomes a legal alternative to, or civilized form of, revenge. Criminal law consists of two main branches substantive criminal law and procedural criminal law. meaty criminal law prohibits certain forms of conduct by defining what acts prepare crimes and establishing the parameters of pen alties. Procedural criminal law regulates the enforcement of the substantive criminal law, the determination of guilt, and the penalization of those found guilty of crimes.Criminal Procedure and Civil ProcedureCriminal Procedure. The branch of the criminal law that deals with the processes by which crimes are investigated, prosecuted, and punished. Thus, procedural criminal law is the process followed by police and the courts in the apprehension and penalization of criminals from the filing of a complaint by a member of the public or the arrest of a suspect by the police, up to the time the defendant is sent to jail, or, if convicted, to prison.Civil litigation that deals with private disputes between parties is adequate to(p) to the rules of civil litigation, sometimes referred to as civil procedure. Criminal cases, deals with acts that are offenses against society as a whole, such as murder and robbery, as subject to the rules for criminal law, and is also known as the rules of criminal procedure.

Foreign Corrupt Practices Act and Teva Pharmaceuticals

Foreign stain Practices Act and Teva PharmaceuticalsCorbin WrightTeva Pharmaceuticals is the largest generic drug companyceutic manufacturer in the world1. As of declination 22, 2016, Teva Pharmaceuticals now holds the record for the largest fine by a pharmaceutical caller-out for violating the foreign corrupt practices act. The settlement amount includes $283 zillion fine from the jurist and a subsequent $236 million fine from the SEC. This total fine of $519 million far outweighs the previous record of Johnson Johnsons $70 million fine from 20112. The interrogative sentence remains, what did TEVA Pharmaceuticals do that required a fine of $519 million? This paper leave behind discuss the project of the FCPA, what Teva Pharmaceuticals did to receive a fine, and what we can learn from their mistake.The purpose of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) is to prohibit yieldry by any company or person who does business in the United States. This includes not only United Stat es citizens, but also foreign executives and businesses that welcome operations in the United States. While the act is imposed on businesses that turn in surveyings in the Unites States, the FCPA was especially designed to prohibit bribery in countries outside the United States. The United States doesnt want its companies or people to office bribery as a form of persuasion abroad-whether legal or illegal. By allowing companies to give bribes, this would give these companies an unfair advantage over their contention and give a bad representation for United States. Even if the bribe is typical business conduct in another country, the governing result impose harsh fines for those who violate this act.Over the last few years, Teva Pharmaceuticals, specifically Teva Russia and Teva Mexico (Fully owned subsidiaries of Teva Pharmaceuticals) have been bribing foreign officials in order for them to buy more of their drug named Copaxone3. While nothing was wrong with this drug from a s cientific aspect, Teva was implementing many different measures to increase revenue for the company. Keisha Hall, a former employee and coach of finance for the Latin American division, filed a lawsuit stating that, Tevas unethical practices include unauthorized payments to doctors in Chile, bribes to physicians working in regional hospitals, and low descent controls in Mexico4. In another report coming from Ukraine, Teva provided various things of observe to a Ukrainian Official to induce him to use his official persuasion within the Ukrainian government to improperly influence the registration of Teva pharmaceutical products in Ukraine.The DOJ investigation revealed emails that explained how TEVA would pay these government officials with money from the implausibly high margins their drugs were being sold for in exchange for influencing the Russian government to purchase this drug through Teva.Teva subsequently entered a plea deal to cooperate with DOJ and SEC. However, becaus e Teva failed to voluntarily self-disclose the FCPA violations to the Fraud Section the fine was not discounted. Teva claims it has since redone its corporate governance program, ceased relationships with fraudulent 3rd parties, and removing any necessary employees5. They have also boosted their internal control procedures.Teva Pharmaceuticals disobeyed the law and reaped over $214 million in excess illicit benefit by paying government officials around $60 million in kickbacks6. While some whitethorn grapple they were just trying to increase revenue and werent harming anyone, they manipulated the market and broke the law. A fine that is roughly double what they made in illicit profits now seems reasonable. Teva Pharmaceuticals has received pretty negative press and the stock impairment reflects consumer sentiment. Since 2015, the stock has fallen from $70 per share to $33 per share. While bribing may seem like a quick way to generate scanty revenue, the downside outweighs any b enefit. As the government continues to give out these large fines, hopefully corporate America will start to act more ethical.1 https//www.verywell.com/the-top-7-generic-drug-companies-26631102 http//fcpaprofessor.com/depth-519-million-teva-fcpa-enforcement-action/3 http//fcpaprofessor.com/depth-519-million-teva-fcpa-enforcement-action/4 http//www.fiercepharma.com/pharma/teva-sets-aside-520m-to-settle-bribery-investigations-by-doj-sec5 https//www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-12-22/teva-agrees-to-pay-519-billion-to-settle-u-s-bribery-probe6 http//www.marketwatch.com/story/sec-doj-fine-teva-pharmaceutical-519-million-to-settle-foreign-bribery-charges-2016-12-22

Comparative Analysis of Marketing for Nikon

Comparative Analysis of Marketing for Nikon1. entrance1.1 BackgroundWith the remarkable improvement of massess living standard, cameras have become necessities, and owe to their affordable set, numerous own cameras. Undoubtedly, cameras provide an easy way to memorialize e really occasion. There be multiple kinds of cameras can be erect everywhere. However, different cameras argon designed for a variety of aras and specific purposes. For instance, wizard lens reflex cameras are designed for amateurs. Nikon and statute are both(prenominal) worldwide well-known camera producers, whose products are functional, well-designed, and widely used.( economy, 2010 e) (Nikon, 2010 f)Nikon with its slogan at the heart of the image, is well-known not only for its advanced technology, but for its trustable grapheme (Nikon, 2010 a). On the some(prenominal) other hand, law is a celebrated camera producer and now is a global corporation. Its purpose is to be used al 1 told over the w orld ( edict, 2010 a).1.2 Theory1.2.1 Market mixMarketing mix, which is expound as the 4Ps as well, is the combination of product, promotion, place and expenditure. Related to partitioning, the securities industrying strategies are usually used on customers in market, with an aim to pay off their need and wants, therefore generating profit (Hall D. et al, 200875).1.2.2 SegmentationMarket Segmentation is the division of customers fit in to their individualities. By market segmenting, companies focus on assured groups of consumers and use feature trade strategies (Hall D. et al, 200866).1.3 AimsThe goals of this report are to analyze how the same grade cameras Nikon D90 and ordinance 50D make up their marketing mix (product, promotion, place and price) for the products to obtain ripe sales in China. In addition, the report will illustrate the targeted segments of ordinance 50D and Nikon D90.2. Findings regarding Nikon D90 and statute 50D2.1 harvestGillespie (200729) men tions that a product can be place on three major levels namely, core, tangibility and augmentation. Fundamentally, utility and design are the to the highest degree notable factor for Single-lens reflex cameras to attract clients. A march on important issue is after-sales service which must be considered as well.2.1.1 Product of Nikon D90Nikon D90 requires a CMOS with 12.3 million effective pixels and the selling point of D90 is its recording function. Its lean is merely 622g, as its body is made of quality plastic. This design makes it witness tout and appressed, it is therefore easier to hold (Dprview, 2010 a). Furtherto a greater extent, although close companies provide after-sales service, it always takes a long time for repair. Nikon (2010 b) states that, they understand the splendor of the products to customers. Therefore, they have been taking considerable efforts to accelerate after-sales service.2.1.2 Product of Canon 50DFrom the other side, Canon 50D is also a succ essful Single-lens reflex camera. Its selling point is 15.1 million effective pixels. The weight of 50D is 822g since it is made of iron (Dprview, 2010 b). In line of battle to provide immediate and trus tworthy supports, Canon gives out the description of 50D and its instruction in the Chinese market. The guild emphasizes that After-sales service that ensures safe use of products over a long marge is vital to maintaining customers trust in the Canon brand (Canon, 2010 b).2.1.3 The Comparison of D90 and 50D products twain Nikon D90 and Canon 50D has their own selling point, as mentioned above, Nikon D90 has its advanced recording function, similarly, Canon improves 50D pixels to be 15.1 million, which is also an enhanced technology. Moreover, both companies realize the increasing importance of after-sales service and have been working to improve it to satisfy their customers.2.2 Promotions2.2.1 Promotion of Canon 50DCanon promotes 50D chiefly by exhibitions and fairs. By attendi ng multitude of exhibitions, it shows its environmentally conscious products and environmental endeavors to the normal. Taking advantage of the exhibitions, Canon attempts to illustrate lucubrate actions of Canon Environmental Vision (Canon, 2010 c).2.2.2 Promotion of Nikon D90Nikon promotes primarily in two ways. One of them is through clubs. Nikon founds many clubs with a significant number of consumers all over the world. It provides several broadband networks and a terrific computer for overlord support. Nikon is trying hard to demonstrate the environment-friendly of its products and build a strong family relationship with the public (Nikon, 2010 c). some other promotion is discount. Nikon announced that customers, who bought D90 during the period from March 1 to May 31, could receive 1200 RMB back. This is an effective way to encourage people to corrupt their products (Nikon, 2010 d).2.2.3 The comparison of Nikon D90 and Canon 50DNikon and Canon have a variety of promotio ns of their products, whereas, they are different from to each one other. However, there is no denying that, both of them do very well on promotion.2.3 Place2.3.1 Place of Nikon D90The primary distribution of Nikon D90 is sell stores. Nikon authorizes a significant number of traders, including retailers and wholesalers, providing convenience for people to purchase their products (Nikon, 2010e). Wholesalers avail in computely distributing products to retailers and customers. It is difficult to distribute well without wholesalers help, for Nikon is a considerable corporation.2.3.2 Place of Canon 50DCanon 50D is sell mainly in retail stores. It is available in a large number of Canon stores nigh the world. Another way to purchase a Canon 50D is from a direct online store. Customers can review its details and price on the website and make an order easily (Canon, 2010 d).2.3.3 The Comparison of Nikon D90 and Canon50D placesDue to convenience and efficiency, retail stores become cu stomary and common regularly. Consequently, both companies primarily focus on retail distribution. However, Canon provides online stores as well to provide reliable products.2.4 PriceThe price of Canon 50D is set around 5580 RMB in Chinese market (Zhongguangchun, 2010 a). On the other hand, the price of Nikon D90 is 6200 RMB (Zhongguangchun, 2010 b).The chart is drawn according to the questionnaire investigation on public SLR amateurs in Guangzhou 2010. It shows different price ranges that people are willing to represent for a single-lens reflex camera. The chart demonstrates that forty-eight percentages are willing to cook up for Single-lens reflex camera less than 5000 Yuan. The prices of D90 and 50D are approximately 6000 RMB that is higher than most people anticipated, merely thirty-two percentages of people are willing to stipend for a camera at this price. However, there are still many amateurs accept higher price.2.4.1 The Comparison of Nikon D90 and Canon50D pricesThe com petition of camera marketing is severe. The price of their products is always approximately the same, for both of them keep an eye on each other. However Nikon 90D is a little more expensive, it is hard to clarify that which one is better since both of them have their different selling points and strengths. Therefore, the choice between them depends on what buyers need.2.5 SegmentationsFundamentally, both Nikon D90 and Canon 50D target amateurs as their primary customers. The people who love photography but are not professionals are the most potential group. A significant feature of these users is that, they take appearance and accessories as the most considerable factors since these are seen as reflection of their identityAnother segmenting is gender. There is a contrast between Nikon D90 and Canon 50D. The goal of Nikon D90 is to satisfy female, for which its body is made of quality plastic to reduce its weight. Conversely, Canon 50D is more likely to meet males needs, for which i ts weight is not necessary to be considered.3. remainder3.1 SummaryTo sum up, marketing mix plays a significant intent in business and it associates with the market segmenting closely. To obtain a good market share, a company should have a strong and suitable marketing mix to satisfy consumers wants and needs. It has been demonstrated by the findings above, that both market segmentation and marketing mix are essential to business.From these comparisons we can draw the sideline conclusion that, there are plenty of commons between Nikon D90 and Canon 50D, such as their target customers, however, they are different in some other aspects, such as their promotion. However, both of them gain satisfying market shares.3.2 Recommendations3.2.1 For NikonAlthough Nikon D90 is sold well in Chinese marketing, the distribution of the D90 could be change to make it more perfect. As there are lots of put on products in the market of China, Nikon is strongly recommended to open an online shop t o avoid this phenomenon3.2.2 For regulationAlthough 50D has obtained good sales for Canon, it is still necessary to ameliorate the marketing mix. Because the price of 50D is slightly higher than people expected, if discount is offered, Canon 50D could be sold better in China.

Tourism Market In Dubai Tourism Essay

snagism Market In Dubai holidaymakerry EssayOur mission is to generate tour plans for Business Tour, Normal Tours and UAE Company planning to send their employees for a trip, we hope to soft touch tourist coming to Dubai for holidays as well as expatriates and locals support in Dubai.Our target market place includes locals, tourist, working class, international visitors, corporate employees and pertly married couples. We leave design different packages to target our market segments establish on demographic segmentation. We induct segmented our market on the bottom of Income Segmentation as described by Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G. (2008).Tourism Market in DubaiThe present credit crunch has similarly abnormal Dubai tourist industry, and its been ascertained that volume work to cut vacations the most as it is a leisure item. Given the current credit crunch it is noted that tourist who head for the hills to travel to Dubai for holidays f altogether in heights end tou rism, which is less credibly to be affected by any sort of economic recession. hence Arabian tours Income segmentation of the market leave al wizard anyow us to take packages for the high end tourist. (Economic Sectors, 2009) The economic sectors of Dubai in the form of a pie graph are shown in Figure 1.dubai-economy.pngFigure Economic Sectors DubaiArabian tours go out target business tours, e modifiedly corporate packages for companies planning to send their employees for a holiday. Hamilton, S. (2008) notes that the tourism industry accounts for 20% of Dubais GDP and notes that Dubai has also move a venue for international conferences, seminars, festivals, exhibitions both on regional and international level, attracting even more than tourist to Dubai. Further explains that traditional Arab hospitality, delightful winter climate, civilize infrastructure and crime free environment are the factors which get out go forward attracting tourist to Dubai in the future. Dubai government is dedicated to make tourism the major(ip) market of Dubai, hence foc victimisation on building tourism industry. at that place are more than 255 hotels in Dubai and still more are under-construction, which give attract tourist in Dubai and will expand the market for Arabian Tours in the future. (UAEs Consumer Market, 2011) According to the pie chart provided by department of tourism and commercialism marketing, Dubai the following figure 2 shows the guests received by Dubai Hotel Establishment by Nationality in January to June, 2010.Guest Dubai.pngFigure Guests Received by Dubai Hotel Establishment by Nationality (Jan-Jun 2010)The above graph shows that the geographic location of Dubai also creates the demand for Arabian tours in Dubai, attracting tourist from UK, EU, USA, India, Iran, China, Russia, GCC and Other Countries of the populace. Dubai is also the economic hub of the Middle eastbound and attracts expatriates of multinational companies, which is also the target market for Arabian tours and clearly explains the gain potential of tourism in Dubai and an prospect for Arabian Tours.CompetitionArabian Tours face a fierce rival in the market as the government continues to spend in tourism, some of the contentions areArabian Horizons ToursDubai Tourism causeTour Experts UAEArabian AdventuresTravel in DubaiEmir Tours of import ToursTour DubaiHormuz TourismDubai depart from SafariArabian tours will have a continuously developing strategy to judicature-mark wholly the rivalrys in the market to gain competitive usefulness. We will notch tour packages for all high end as well as low end tourist. customer Satisfaction will be the meaning of the function provided at Arabian Tours enabling us to differentiate our tour packages from our competitors. We will reach limited negotiations with Burj Al Arab and other hotels and resorts to offer the best packages for the tourist. We will also offer luxury pickups from Dubai Airport in a R olce Royce to differentiate our services from our competitors.A competitor analysis is the first step the firm takes to be competent to predict the extent and nature of its rivalry with each competitor as stated by Hokisson, R.E., Hitt, M.A., Ireland, R.D. Harrison, J.S. (2008). Arabian tours will conduct a natural competitor analysis of all the marketing activities, promotions and tour packages offered by its competitors.A detailed industry analysis will be conducted to analyze all the new entrants, buyers, suppliers, competitors and substitutes as explained by Walker, G. (2004). Arabian Tours will conduct competitor analysis by assessing competitors objectives, strategies, strengths and weaknesses, and reaction patterns. Benchmarking will be at the core of Arabian Tours competitive strategy and the research aggroup of Arabian Tours will always keep itself engaged in gathering information active competitors marketing mix, and also if the competitor is satisfied with their curr ent marketing mix, and how the competitor might react to something launched by Arabian Tours. To assess the competitors strengths and weaknesses secondary selective information about the competitors will be collected, which will then be map to assess the competitors reactions.Arabian Tours will have an active research team engaged in marketing and competitor research. The findings of the research work will be used to develop competitive strength of Arabian Tours, as noted by Luther, W.M. (2011) competitive strength is one of the most beta factors that determines whether you will enjoy profitability, and surprisingly, one that many entrepreneurs dont even take into account, gain states that actually its the competition rather than the customer that determines your revenues, market share and profit. jam AnalysisTechnology(Strength)Technology plays a vital role in todays world, Arabian Tours website will be launched providing the customers access to all the companies promotions and packages. Customers will be satisfactory to book a holiday tour by visiting the confederation website or by calling one of our representatives. Internet travelling is increment on a fast pace, our company website will be a complete tour solution for the entire tourist worldwide. We will use search engine optimization creating links of our websites on different websites attracting tourist globally to our website. Arabian Tours will have a robust CRM computer program in place to increase customer satisfaction.Social Media will also be used to spread the word about our company and the services offered, our holiday packages will be drived using social media, print media and electronic media. We will also use billboards around the city to advertise the promotions and tour packages offered by Arabian Tour. Arabian Tours website will be in sight in all the search engines, we will also post blogs, emails and eNewsletters to the target market.Socio-Political EnvironmentSince January, 2008 the world saw the worst financial crisis that has also affected Dubai tourist industry. Given the current financial crisis it is noted that tourist who tend to travel to Dubai for holidays fall in high end tourism, which is less probable to be affected by any sort of economic recession.Arabian Tours will have a special policy on identifying and eliminating world rights riska from its operations, and it is the primary responsibility of the enterprise to respect human rights in all of the companys practices.Corruption and bribery have a negative impact on any business, Dubai offers a crime and misguideion free environment for all the businesses which will help us to fight any corrupt practices. Arabian tours will design internal mechanism to prevent, detect and remediate corrupt practices.Climate Change is one of the biggest risk faced by the world today, global water supplies are diminishing, plot of land climate chane is one of the biggest risks of twenty-first century, it also presents opportunities for Arabian Tours to expand its business and come up with special holiday tours in Summers.Threats and OpportunitiesArabian Tours has to face a lot of competition by its competitors because Dubai is a tourist spot and more and more tourist companies are entering the market. This allows an easy entry of Arabian Tours in the tourism industry but at the same time Arabian Tours has to workbench mark these competitors to gain competitive advantage.All our services will be customer oriented which provides us an opportunity to gain competitive advantage in the tourism industry of Dubai. Dubai government has policies to promote tourism which is an opportunity Arabian Tours can avail and enter the market without any restrictions. The safe and sound world looks at Dubai as a holiday spot which attracts more tourists to Dubai every year, which is also an opportunity for Arabian Tours to attract international tourist.ObjectivesTo run low the industry leader in pro viding tour packages for Dubai.Providing tour packages to all concourse visiting Dubai as well as expatriates and locals living in Dubai.To become the leader in providing luxurious tour packages.Setting industry standards for tours in Dubai.Providing Customer driven preferences for tour planning.StrategiesTo become the industry leader we will advertise to masses as well as target market the niche market of tourism which are the high end tourist.We will acquire luxurious vehicles, helicopters and Cessna planes to become the luxurious tour provider. We will provide our customers with an experience which they wont forget and give them something to remember and take memories rearwards with them when they leave Dubai. Our international correspondence office will be circulate 24hours providing information on our tour packages and all the luxurious options which tourist could agree to their tour.ACTION PLAN/MARKETING MIXPRODUCTWe have think to offer the following servicesDesert Safari Morning Desert SafariEvening Desert SafariOvernight Dubai Desert SafariDesert Safari by Hummer (Luxurious Tour)Hatta Mountain Safarisheet PackagesCruise and Fish in The Gulf (Dolphin and Seals Show)Cruise and Dine Dubai rampantly Wadi TourBig Bus Dubai TourTour all the shop malls and famous tourist spots in DubaiFly over Dubai helicopter tour of Dubai (sight seeing Dubai)Cessna Plane tour of Dubai (Sight seeing Dubai)Tour Packages for newly married couplesRomantic CruiseHoney Moon package with a stay at Burj Al Arab and reception on helicopter from Dubai airdromeBusiness TourSite Seeing Dubai in a meat cleaverCessna fly over DubaiCorporate PackagesHoliday package for company employees (international/national) hurtOur tour packages are focused to provide luxury tour to our customers while offering competitive prices.PROMOTION PLANWe will be using following promotion methodsPrint MediaElectronic MediaBillboardsSteamersSocial MediaOn flexure WebsiteTo compete in the market we will a lso use both above the line and below the line marketing strategies. Social Media advertisement will be used to reach all the target markets to reach all the people visiting to Dubai and expatriates as well as locals living in Dubai. side/DISTRIBUTION METHODSWe will have our Head office on tribal sheikh zayed road with branches in famous spots of Dubai, i.e. Airport, Deira, Bur Dubai (One Head station and Three Branches). Our customers will be able to contact us online as well and the website will provide all the information on the visible(prenominal) tours and customers will be able to book a tour from anyplace in the world.Our sales team will be given customer oriented teaching, enabling them to provide customer satisfaction to the tourist. Staff training will includeSales Team TrainingManagement Trainee planSelling at the airport sales trainingSALES PROJECTIONS FOR quintuple YEARSThe following table shows the sales projection for Arabian Tours for 5 years, (Dubai Tourism ap peal up, 2012) reports that, Dubai ranks among the top 10 tourist destinations worldwide and the emirate is expect to attract 8.8million international visitors in 2012 with spending estimated at around 8.8 billion, index released by global credit card company MasterCard.Table Arabian Tours 5 years Sales ProjectionsSALES PROJECTIONS FOR FIVE YEARS category 1Year 2Year 3Year 4Year 5Optimistic50K60K70K80K90KPessimistic30K40K50K60K70KRealistic40K50K60K70K80KTable one shows the five year sales projection for Arabian Tours, serving bench mark 1000 tourist a week.

Model for Predicting Fatigue Life of Nanomaterials

Model for Predicting jade action of Nano existentsIntroductionIn the sometime(prenominal), the primary go of micro-organizations incase was to provide input/output (I/O) friendships to and from ruffled circuits (ICs) and to provide interconnectedness in the midst of the comp championnts on the clay jury level while physically supporting the electronic device and protecting the assembly from the environment.In nine to maturation the meshality and the miniaturization of the current electronic devices, these IC devices check non only incorpo estimated more than transistors but bring in also include more active and passive comp match littlents on an individual head for the hills. This has sphereed in the emergent trend of a new convergent system1Currently, in that location atomic number 18 trinity trader(prenominal)(prenominal) approaches to achieving these convergent systems, namely the system-on- disrupt (SOC), system-in- case (SIP) and system on mailboat ( SOP). SOC seeks to commingle legion(predicate) system functions on sensation ti chip. However, this approach has numerous fundamental and economical limitations which include last fabrication costs and consolidation limits on wire little communications, which out-of-pocket to inherent losses of silicon and surface of it restriction.SIP is a 3-D advancement approach, where vertical stacking of multi-chip modules is employed. Since all of the ICs in the stack be still limited to CMOS IC treat, the fundamental desegregation limitation of the SOC still re mains. SOP on the differentwise hand, seeks to get hold of a richlyly incorpo rambled microminiaturized system on the package using silicon for transistor integrating and package for RF, digital and optical consolidation1 IC packaging is genius of the key enabling technologies for micro goor performance.As performance increments, technical challenges amplification in the studys of power deli precise, heat remova l, I/O density and thermo- mechanised dependability. These ar the most difficult challenges for improving performance and change magnitude integration, a ample with diminish manufacturing cost.Chip-to-package inter conjunctives in microsystems packages serve as galvanizing interconnections but often live on by mechanisms much(prenominal) as devolve and suck up. Furthermore, driven by the assume for growing the system functionality and decrease the feature coat, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that integrate chip (IC) packages leave behind arrive interconnections with I/O tend of 90 nm by the year 2018 2. Lead-based solder cloths learn been used for interconnections in flip chip engineering science and the surface mount engine room for many an(prenominal) a(prenominal) decades.The traditional lead-based and lead-free solder bumps lead non satisfy the thermic machinelike requirement of these fine ripes interco nnects. These electronic packages, even under habitual operating conditions, send packing reach a temperature as senior gritty(prenominal) as one hundred fiftyC. Due to differences in the coefficient of thermic expansion of the reals in an IC package, the packages volition experience signifi locoweedt thermal manakins payable to the pair, which in turn leave cause lead and lead-free solder interconnections to get around prematurely.Aggarwal et al 3 had simulate the stock see by chip to package interconnect. In his work, he unquestionable interconnects with a visor of 15 to 50 micrometre on incompatible substrate using classic beam theory. compute 1 shows the stately of his model and a compendious of some of his passs.Although pliable intrerconect could visits the reach experience by the interconnect, it is still in comfortable. Chng et al. 4 performed a parametric study on the grind livelinesstime of a solder newspaper mainstay for a agitate of 10 0micrometre using a macro-micro approach. In her work, she veritable models of a solder column/bump with a pad coat of 50micrometre and top sides of 50 micrometre to two hundred micrometre. Table I shows a compend of some of her results.Table 1.1 sc ar off liveliness sentence estimation of solder columnchip thickness (micrometre)250640640640 tabular array CTE (ppm/K)1818105solder column height (micrometre)Fatigue conduct estimation/cycle)5081N.A1713237100 one hundred fifty272763124150134315184405cc74382735772It can be seen from Table 1.1 that the pall lives of all solder columns be passing short. Apart from the 5ppm/K board where on that point is excellent CTE matching, the largest deteriorate keeptime of the solder column is only about 518 cycles. As expected, the fatigue brio out harvest-festivals significantly when the board CTE decreases from 18ppm/K to 10ppm/K and as the height add-ons from 50micrometre to 200micrometre.This is generally out-of-pocket to th e large gunstock induced by the thermal mismatch as shown in conformation 1.2.The maximum inelastic principal focus was about 0.16 which exceeds the maximum gunstock that the genuine can support. Although the fatigue life of the chip to package interconnection can be increases by change magnitude the interconnects height, it will non be able to visit the laid-back absolute absolute frequency galvanizing requirements of the future IC where they compulsion to be operating at a high frequencies of 10-20 GHz and a signal bandwidth of 20 Gbps,By definition, nanocrystalline materials ar materials that have texture coat slight(prenominal) than 100nm and these materials argon not new since nanocrystalline materials have been observed in several naturally-occurring specimens including seashells, bone, and tooth enamel 5, 6. However, the nanocrystalline materials have been attr play acting a lot of inquiry interest cod to its superior mechanical and electrical properties as compargond to the coarse- iotaed counterpart.For example, the nano-crystalline tomentum has about 6 extension the forcefulness of bulk papal bull 7. Furthermore, the improvement in the mechanical properties due to the simplification in impress size of it has been intumesce(p)-documented. Increase in force play due to the lessening in cereal grass-size is predicted by the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been corroborate numerically by Swygenhoven et al 8 and was first demonstrated experimentally by Weertman 9.The implantation of nanocrystalline slob as interconnect materials seems to be feasible from the treat viewpoint too. Copper has been used as interconnects materials since 1989 whereas nano- strapper has also been widely care for using electroplating and other monstrous plastic deformation techniques in the past few years. For instance, Lu et al. 10 have describe electroplating of nano- dogshit with granulate size less than 100 nm and electrical con ductivity comparable to microcrystalline bulls eye. Furthermore, Aggarwal et al 11 have demonstrated the feasibility of using electrolytic plating processes to rely nanocrystalline nickel as a back-end wafer compatible process. However, in that respect are definite challenges regarding implantation of nanocrystalline squealer as interconnects materials.As discussed above, nanocrystalline hair have a high potential of being used as the next extension interconnect for electronic packaging. However, it is vital to understand their material properties, deformation mechanisms and microstructures stability. Although the increase in saturation due to the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been corroborate numerically and experimentally by Weertman 9, the improvement in the fatigue properties is not well documented and no model has been throwed to predict/characterize these nano materials in interconnection application conflicting results regarding the fatigue properties have also been inform. Kumar et al 12 reported that for nano-crystalline and ultra-fine crystalline Ni, although there is an increase in flexible striving range and the endurance limit, the bye ontogeny rate also increases.However, Bansal et al. 7 reported that with diminish instill size, the malleable tensity range increases but the click growth rate decreases substantially at the same cyclical line intensity range. Thus, nanostructured materials can potentially provide a solution for the dependability of low jactitate interconnections. However, the fatigue resistance of nanostructured interconnections needs to be and investigated.Since whit boundaries in polycrystalline material increases the total energy of the system as compare to perfect single crystal, it will resulted in a driving force to chasten the overall atom point of accumulation state by increasing the average food whit size. In the case of nanocrystalline materials which have a high mickle split up of tittle boundaries, there is a huge driving force for texture to growth and this presented a presents a significant obstacle to the processing and use of nanocrystalline sloven for interconnect applications.Millet et al 13 have shown, though a series of systematic molecular kinetics modelings, perforate growth in bulk nanocrystalline blur during annealing at constant temperature of 800K can be impeded with dopants segregated in the tittle boundaries regions. However, it has been observed that attempt can trigger atom growth in nanocrystalline materials 14 and there is no literature available on impeding stress assisted whit growth. There is an impending need to investigate the deterrent to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growthDissertation ObjectivesThe goal of present project is to develop a model for the fatigue resistance of nano-materials that have been shown to have superior fatigue resistance. Accordingly, the undermentione d inquiry objectives are proposed.Develops a model for predicting fatigue life of nanostructured chip-to-package fuzz interconnectionsDevelops a fundamental understanding on the fatigue appearance of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applicationAddresses the issue on the stability of nanocrystalline materials undergoing cyclic loadingOverview of the ThesisThe thesis is organized so that past research on nanocrystalline materials forms the basis of the understanding and new knowledge discovered in this research. Chapter 2 reviews much of the pertinent literature regarding nanocrystalline materials, including synthesis, deformation mechanisms, and grain growth.Chapter 3 describes a detailed overview of the technical aspects of the molecular kinetics pretence regularity including inter-atomic potentials, time integration algorithms, the NVT NPT, and NEPT ensembles, as well as periodic limit conditions and neighbor lists. Include in this chapter is the algorithms for creati ng nanocrystallinematerials used in this dissertations.. Chapter 4 describes the simulation procedure designed to investigate and develop the yearn crack growth analysis. The results of the long crack growth analysis will be presented at the end of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents the result and discussion on mechanical bearing of single and nanocrystalline copper contented to monotonic and cyclic loading whereas Chapter 6 presents the result and discussion on the obstructer to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growth. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 5.Chapter 2This chapter offers an expanded summary of the literature published with regards to the fabrication modes, characterization, and properties of nanocrystalline materials in sum total to a description of existing interconnect technology.2.1 Off-Chip Interconnect TechnologiesChip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but they will often failed by mechanisms much(prenominal) as fatigue and cower. Furthermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the feature size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that interconnections of integrated chip (IC) packages will have a I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2.The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) roadmap is a roadmap that semiconducting material device industry closely follows closely and its projects the need for several technology generations. The package must be capable of happening these projections in devote for it to be successful. This section reviews some of the current interconnect technology.Wire bonding 15 as shown in look 2.1, is generally considered as one of the most simple, efficient and flexible interconnect technology. The devices on the silicon die are (gold or aluminum) wire bonded to electrically con nect from the chip to the wire bond pads on the periphery. However, the disadvantages of wire bonding are the slow rate, large pitch and long interconnect length and indeed this will not be adequate for high I/O application.Instead of wires in the wire bonding, taping automated bonding (TAB) is an interconnect technology using a prefabricated pierce polyimide film, with copper leads mingled with chip and substrate. The advantage of this technology is the high by dint ofput and the high lead count. However, it is limited by the high initial costs for tooling.An alternating(a) to peripheral interconnect technology is the area-array solution, as shown in act 2.3, that glide path the unused area by using the area under the chip. In area-array packaging, the chip has an array of solder bumps that are joined to a substrate. Under-fill is consequently fills the gap between the chip and substrate to enhance mechanical adhesion. This technology gives the highest packaging density rules and best electrical propertys of all the avaiable interconnection technology. However, not only is its initial cost is high, it requires a in truth demanding technology to progress and operate.With the need for higher(prenominal) I/O density, conformable interconnects have been developed to satisfy the mechanical requirements of high performance micron sized interconnects. The underlying idea is to curtail shear stress experienced by the interconnects through increasing their height or decreasing of its shear modulus (i.e. increases in their nonresistant) and indeed the name pliant interconnects. Some of recent research in compliant interconnects include Tesseras all-inclusive Area Vertical Expansion, Form Factors Wire on Wafer and Georgia Institute of Technologys Helix interconnects 17-19 as shown in Figure 2.4.Although compliant interconnects can solve the problem of mechanical reliability issue, they are through with(p) at the expense of the electrical performanc e. Since there is a need to tighten the packages parasitic through a decrease line delays, there is a need to minimize the electrical connection length in piece to increase the system working frequency. Hence, compliant interconnect may not meet the high electrical frequency requirements of future devices.Figure 2.4 (a) wide Area Vertical Expansion, (b) Wire on Wafer and (c) G-Helix 17-19Lead and lead-free solders typically fail mechanical when scaled down to less than to a pitch of 100 mm. Compliant interconnections, on the other hand, do not meet the high frequency electrical requirements. The Microsystems Packaging Research Center at Georgia institute of Technology had demonstrated the feasibility of using re-workable nanostructure interconnections. Aggarwal et al 20 had show that nanostructured nickel interconnections, through a Flip Chip probe vehicle, was able to improve the mechanical reliability while maintaining the shor rill electrical connection length. However, the m ain disadvantages of this manner was the significant signal loss at high frequency signal of nanocrystalline nickel 21.As discussed above, nanostructure interconnects technology is the most brilliant interconnect technology to best meet the stringent mechanical and electrical requirement of next generation devices. However, there is a need of an thumb materials and a sensible choice of materials in this case would be nanocrystalline copper for its high peculiarity material with superior electrical conductivity.Hence, it would be just to use nanocrystalline-copper as material for the nanostructure interconnects. Due to the tendency for the grain to grow, there is a need to stabilize the grain growth in nanocrystalline copper before using it could be considered as a potential view for nanostructure interconnect.2.2 Nanocrystalline materialNanocrystalline materials are polycrystalline materials with an average grain size of less than 100 nm 22. Over the past decade , new nanocrys talline or nanostructured materials with key microstructural length scales on the coiffe of a few tens of nanometers has been gaining a lot of interest in the material science research society.This is generally due to its unique and superior properties, as compared to their microcrystalline counterparts which includes increased military posture 22 and wear resistance 23. These unique properties are due to the large bulk component of atoms at or near the grain boundaries. As a result, these materials have unique properties that are phonation of both the grain barrier surface device characteristics and the bulk. youthful advances in synthesis and processing systemology for producing nanocrystalline materials such as inert gas condensation 24, mechanical milling 25, 26, electro- stupefyion 27, and double-dyed(a) plastic deformation 28 have made it affirmable to produce decent nanocrystalline materials for miniscule scale application.2.2.1 SynthesisInert gas condensation, the first rule used to synthesis bulk nanocrystalline 29, consists of evaporating a metal inside a high- nullity chamber and thus backfilling the chamber with inert gas 30. These evaporated metal atoms would whence collide with the gas atoms, causing them to lose kinetic energy and condenses into pulverisation of trivial nano-crystals. These pulverises are consequently compacted under high pressure and make clean into nearly fully dense nanocrystalline solids.The grain size distribution obtained from this method is unremarkably very narrow. However, the major draws back of this method are its high porosity levels and imperfection bonding. Grain coarsening also occurs due to the high temperature during the calf love stage 31.Mechanical milling consists of heavy cyclic deformation in powders until the final composition of the powders corresponds to a real percentages of the respective initial constituents 25, 26. A wide grain size distribution is obtained by this method. Thi s technique is a popular method to prepare nanocrystalline materials because of its pertinence to any material and simplicity. However, their main drawback includes contamination and grain coarsening during the consolidation stage.Electro-deposition consists of using electrical current to reduce cations of a desired material from a electrolyte solution and coating a conductive object on the substrate. Electro-deposition has many advantages over processing techniques and this includes its applicability to a wide variety of materials, low initial capital enthronisation requirements and porosity-free finished products without a need for consolidation processing 27. Furthermore, Shen et al. 32 and Lu et al.33 had lately show that the right electro-deposition condition can produce a passing twinned structure which leads to enhanced ductility. The main drawback of this method is it is the difficulty to strive high purity.Severe plastic deformation, such as high-pressure torsion, fit ted channel angular extrusion (ECAE), continuous confined shear torturing and accumulative roll-bonding, uses extreme plastic origining to produce nanocrystalline materials by mechanisms such as grain fragmentation, dynamic recovery, and geometric re-crystallization 34. It is the only technology that modify conventional macro-grained metals directly into nanocrystalline materials without the need of potentially hazardous nano-sized powders. This is achieved by introducing very high shear deformations into the material under superimposed hydrostatic pressure. twain of the most commonly used methods are high-pressure torsion and ECAE 35. In the study of the effect of ECAE on the microstructure of nanocrystalline copper, Dalla Torre et al 36 observed that the grains become more equi-axial and randomly orientation as the number of passes increases, as shown in Figure 2.5Figure 2.5 Microstructure of ECAE copper subjected to (a) 1 passes (b) 2 passes (c) 4 passes (d) 8 passes (e) 12 p asses and (f) 16 passes 362.2.2 Mechanical Behavior of nanocrystalline materialsDue to the small grain size and high masses fraction of grain boundaries, nanocrystalline materials exhibit significantly contrastive properties and expression as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. The structure and mechanical expression of nanocrystalline materials has been the subject of a lot of researchers interests both experimentally 37-43 and theoretically 44-50. This section reviews the principal mechanical properties and behavior of nanocrystalline materials.2.2.2.1 Strength and ductility novel studies of nanocrystalline metals have shown that there is a five to ten fold increases in the position and gracelessness as compared to their microcrystalline state 7, 36, 37, 51, 52. This increase in the dexterity is due to the nominal head of grain boundaries impeding the nucleation and movement of disruptions.Since decreasing grain spring size increases the number of barrier and the amount of applied stress indispensable to move a kerfuffle across a grain limit point, this resulted in a much higher allot strength. The inverse relationship between grain size and strength is characterized by the Hall-Petch relationship 53, 54 as shown in equation (2.1).Eq (2.1)In equation (2.1), s is the mechanical strength, k is a material constant and d is the average grain size. Hence, nanocrystalline materials are expected to exhibit higher strength as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show the summary of cogency and generate strength from tensile test that are reported in the literature. Indeed, insensibility and yield strength of copper with a grain size of 10nm (3GPa) can be one order higher than their microcrystalline counterpart. To the larger specimens.Derivation from Hall-Petch relationship begins as the grain size approaches 30nm where the stresses needed to activate the dislocation multiplication via Frank-Read sour ces at heart the grains are too high and the plastic deformation is instead accommodated by grain boundaries sliding and migration.12. Furthermore, as the grain size reduces, the hoi polloi fraction of the grain boundaries and the triple points increases.Material properties will be more exemplification of the grain bounce activity 64 and this will resulting the strength to be reciprocally proportional to grain size instead of square roots of the grain size as predicted by Hall Petch relation 65. Further reduction in the grain size will result in grain boundaries processes controlling the plastic deformation and reverse Hall-Petch effect, where the materials soften, will take place.Although precedent defects had been account for the earlier experimental observation of reverse Hall-Petch effect24, Swygenhoven et al 66 and Schiotz et al 47, using molecular simulation, was able to showed that nanocrystalline copper had the highest strength (about 2.3GPa ) at a grain size of 8nm and 10-15nm respectively. Conrad et al 67 pointed out that below this critical grain size, the mechanisms shifted to grain boundary-mediated from dislocation-mediated plasticity and this causes the material to become dependent on push rate, temperature, Taylor orientation factor and strawman of the type of dislocation.The yield stress of nanocrystalline copper was passing sensitive to change shape rate even though it is a fcc materials. The tinge rate esthesia, m, in equation 2.2 a engineering contention which measured the dependency of the strain rate and Figure 2.8 shows a summary of m as a function of grain size for copper specimen in the literature 51, 68-70. Due to high localized dislocation activities at the grain boundaries which results in enhanced strain rate sensitivities in nanocrystalline materials, m increases drastically when the grain size is below 0.1 mm as shown in Figure 2.8.(2.2)Room temperature strain rate aesthesia was effect to dependent on dislocation ac tivities and grain boundaries diffusion 52, 71, 72. Due to the miserable lattice diffusion at get on temperature, the rate limiting process for microcrystalline copper was the gliding dislocation to cutting through timber dislocation, resulting in low strain rate sensitivities.However, due to the increasing figurehead of obstacles such as grain boundaries for nanocrystalline materials, the rate limiting process for smaller grain size was the interaction of dislocation and the grain boundaries, which is strain rate and temperature dependence. By considering the length scale of the dislocation and grain boundaries interaction, Cheng et al 52 proposed the next model for strain rate sensitivities. (2.3)z is the distance swept by the dislocation during activation, r is the dislocation density and a, a and b are the proportional factors. With this model, they will be able to predict higher strain rate sensitivities for nanocrystalline material produced by severe plastic deformation as compared to other technique. Since the twin boundaries in nanocrystalline or ultra fine grain copper served as a barriers for dislocation motion and nucleation which led to passing localized dislocations near the twin boundaries, the strain rate sensitivity of copper with high density of coherent twin boundaries was set up to be higher than those without any twin boundaries 33. Lastly, the increase enhanced strain rate sensitivity in nanocrystalline copper had been ascribe for it increases in strength and ductility. For example, Valiev et al 60 credit the enhanced strain rate sensitivity of 0.16 for the high ductility.In growth to a strong dependency on the strain rate, strength in nanocrystalline materials was also highly dependent on the temperature. Wang et al 73 observed that the yield strength for ultra fine grain copper with a grain size of 300nm increases from approximately 370MPa to 500MPa when the temperature reduces from room temperature to 77k. The authors attribu ted this increase in yield strength due to the absence of additional thermal deformation processes at 77k. This is uniform with Huang et al 74 observation where the temperature dependence of nanocrystalline copper with an increase in cruelness of nanocrystalline copper with lowering the temperature is notedDuctility is another important characteristic of nanocrystalline materials. In microcrystalline materials, a reduction in grain size will increase the ductility due to the charge of grain boundaries acting as effective barriers to the propagation of micro-cracks75. However, nanocrystalline copper showed a lower strain to failure than that of their microcrystalline counterparts and this lacks in ductility was attributed to the presence of processing defects 76.Recent advanced in processing of nanocrystalline materials offer materials with fairly good ductility in additional to ultra-high strength. Lu et al 10 reported that nanocrystalline copper with stripped-down flaw produced via electro-deposition had an elongation to fracture of 30%. Furthermore, Youssef et al 77 observed a 15.5% elongation to failure for defect free nanocrystalline copper produced via mechanical milling. Hence, it was doable for nanocrystalline copper to be both strong and ductile if the processing artifacts are minimized.The failure are ordinarily consists of dimples several time larger than their grain size was median(prenominal)ly found on the failure morphology of nanocrystalline materials and Kumar et al 78 presented the following model for initiation and hence the eventual failure of nanocrystalline materials. Furthermore, the presence of shear region was found to be due to shear fixing since the ratio of strain hardening rate to prevailing stress was usually small 79, 80.Figure 2.9 Schematic illustration of fracture in nanocrystalline material postulated by Kumar et al 782.2.2.2 CreepsNanocrystalline materials are expected to creep during room temperature. This is because Due to the higher fraction of grain boundaries and triple junctions, self diffusivity of nanocrystalline material had been shown to increase by an order of tercet as compared to microcrystalline copper 81. Since creep behavior was dependent on grain size and diffusivity, with creep rate increases with an increase in diffusivity or a decrease in grain size, the creep temperature for nanocrystalline copper was known to be a small fraction of melting temperature (about 0.22 of its melting points). Furthermore, since creep had always been cited as one of the reason for grain size softening in nanocrystalline materials, creeps were other important mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials that had been gaining a lot of researchers attention.Due to the high volume fraction of grain boundaries and enhanced diffusivity rateModel for Predicting Fatigue Life of NanomaterialsModel for Predicting Fatigue Life of NanomaterialsIntroductionIn the past, the primary function of micro-syste ms packaging was to provide input/output (I/O) connections to and from integrated circuits (ICs) and to provide interconnection between the components on the system board level while physically supporting the electronic device and protecting the assembly from the environment.In order to increase the functionality and the miniaturization of the current electronic devices, these IC devices have not only incorporated more transistors but have also include more active and passive components on an individual chip. This has resulted in the emerging trend of a new convergent system1Currently, there are three main approaches to achieving these convergent systems, namely the system-on-chip (SOC), system-in-package (SIP) and system on package (SOP). SOC seeks to integrate numerous system functions on one silicon chip. However, this approach has numerous fundamental and economical limitations which include high fabrication costs and integration limits on wireless communications, which due to inherent losses of silicon and size restriction.SIP is a 3-D packaging approach, where vertical stacking of multi-chip modules is employed. Since all of the ICs in the stack are still limited to CMOS IC processing, the fundamental integration limitation of the SOC still remains. SOP on the other hand, seeks to achieve a highly integrated microminiaturized system on the package using silicon for transistor integration and package for RF, digital and optical integration1 IC packaging is one of the key enabling technologies for microprocessor performance.As performance increases, technical challenges increase in the areas of power delivery, heat removal, I/O density and thermo-mechanical reliability. These are the most difficult challenges for improving performance and increasing integration, along with decreasing manufacturing cost.Chip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but often fail by mechanisms such as fatigue and creep. Furt hermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the feature size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that integrated chip (IC) packages will have interconnections with I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2. Lead-based solder materials have been used for interconnections in flip chip technology and the surface mount technology for many decades.The traditional lead-based and lead-free solder bumps will not satisfy the thermal mechanical requirement of these fine pitches interconnects. These electronic packages, even under normal operating conditions, can reach a temperature as high as 150C. Due to differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion of the materials in an IC package, the packages will experience significant thermal strains due to the mismatch, which in turn will cause lead and lead-free solder interconnections to fail prematurely.Aggarwal et al 3 had modeled the stress experienced by chip to pack age interconnect. In his work, he developed interconnects with a height of 15 to 50 micrometre on assorted substrate using classic beam theory. Figure 1 shows the conventional of his model and a summary of some of his results.Although compliant intrerconect could reduces the stress experienced by the interconnect, it is still in sufficient. Chng et al. 4 performed a parametric study on the fatigue life of a solder column for a pitch of 100micrometre using a macro-micro approach. In her work, she developed models of a solder column/bump with a pad size of 50micrometre and heights of 50 micrometre to 200 micrometre. Table I shows a summary of some of her results.Table 1.1 Fatigue life estimation of solder columnchip thickness (micrometre)250640640640board CTE (ppm/K)1818105solder column height (micrometre)Fatigue life estimation/cycle)5081N.A171323710015027276312415013431518440520074382735772It can be seen from Table 1.1 that the fatigue lives of all solder columns are passing shor t. Apart from the 5ppm/K board where there is excellent CTE matching, the largest fatigue life of the solder column is only about 518 cycles. As expected, the fatigue life increases significantly when the board CTE decreases from 18ppm/K to 10ppm/K and as the height increases from 50micrometre to 200micrometre.This is in the first place due to the large strain induced by the thermal mismatch as shown in Figure 1.2.The maximum inelastic principal strain was about 0.16 which exceeds the maximum strain that the material can support. Although the fatigue life of the chip to package interconnection can be increases by increasing the interconnects height, it will not be able to meet the high frequency electrical requirements of the future IC where they need to be operating at a high frequencies of 10-20 GHz and a signal bandwidth of 20 Gbps,By definition, nanocrystalline materials are materials that have grain size less than 100nm and these materials are not new since nanocrystalline mat erials have been observed in several naturally-occurring specimens including seashells, bone, and tooth enamel 5, 6. However, the nanocrystalline materials have been attracting a lot of research interest due to its superior mechanical and electrical properties as compared to the coarse-grained counterpart.For example, the nano-crystalline copper has about 6 time the strength of bulk copper 7. Furthermore, the improvement in the mechanical properties due to the reduction in grain size has been well-documented. Increase in strength due to the reduction in grain-size is predicted by the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been confirmed numerically by Swygenhoven et al 8 and was first demonstrated experimentally by Weertman 9.The implantation of nanocrystalline copper as interconnect materials seems to be feasible from the processing viewpoint too. Copper has been used as interconnects materials since 1989 whereas nano-copper has also been widely treat using electroplating and oth er severe plastic deformation techniques in the past few years. For instance, Lu et al. 10 have reported electroplating of nano-copper with grain size less than 100 nm and electrical conductivity comparable to microcrystalline copper. Furthermore, Aggarwal et al 11 have demonstrated the feasibility of using electrolytic plating processes to deposit nanocrystalline nickel as a back-end wafer compatible process. However, there are certain challenges regarding implantation of nanocrystalline copper as interconnects materials.As discussed above, nanocrystalline copper have a high potential of being used as the next generation interconnect for electronic packaging. However, it is vital to understand their material properties, deformation mechanisms and microstructures stability. Although the increase in strength due to the Hall-Petch relationship which has also been confirmed numerically and experimentally by Weertman 9, the improvement in the fatigue properties is not well documented an d no model has been established to predict/characterize these nano materials in interconnection application conflicting results regarding the fatigue properties have also been reported. Kumar et al 12 reported that for nano-crystalline and ultra-fine crystalline Ni, although there is an increase in tensile stress range and the endurance limit, the crack growth rate also increases.However, Bansal et al. 7 reported that with decreasing grain size, the tensile stress range increases but the crack growth rate decreases substantially at the same cyclic stress intensity range. Thus, nanostructured materials can potentially provide a solution for the reliability of low pitch interconnections. However, the fatigue resistance of nanostructured interconnections needs to be bring forward investigated.Since grain boundaries in polycrystalline material increases the total energy of the system as compare to perfect single crystal, it will resulted in a driving force to reduce the overall grain b oundary area by increasing the average grain size. In the case of nanocrystalline materials which have a high volume fraction of grain boundaries, there is a huge driving force for grain to growth and this presented a presents a significant obstacle to the processing and use of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applications.Millet et al 13 have shown, though a series of systematic molecular dynamics simulations, grain growth in bulk nanocrystalline copper during annealing at constant temperature of 800K can be impeded with dopants segregated in the grain boundaries regions. However, it has been observed that stress can trigger grain growth in nanocrystalline materials 14 and there is no literature available on impeding stress assisted grain growth. There is an impending need to investigate the impediment to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growthDissertation ObjectivesThe goal of present project is to develop a model for the fatigue resist ance of nano-materials that have been shown to have superior fatigue resistance. Accordingly, the following research objectives are proposed.Develops a model for predicting fatigue life of nanostructured chip-to-package copper interconnectionsDevelops a fundamental understanding on the fatigue behavior of nanocrystalline copper for interconnect applicationAddresses the issue on the stability of nanocrystalline materials undergoing cyclic loadingOverview of the ThesisThe thesis is organized so that past research on nanocrystalline materials forms the basis of the understanding and new knowledge discovered in this research. Chapter 2 reviews much of the pertinent literature regarding nanocrystalline materials, including synthesis, deformation mechanisms, and grain growth.Chapter 3 describes a detailed overview of the technical aspects of the molecular dynamics simulation method including inter-atomic potentials, time integration algorithms, the NVT NPT, and NEPT ensembles, as well as periodic boundary conditions and neighbor lists. Include in this chapter is the algorithms for creating nanocrystallinematerials used in this dissertations.. Chapter 4 describes the simulation procedure designed to investigate and develop the long crack growth analysis. The results of the long crack growth analysis will be presented at the end of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 presents the result and discussion on mechanical behavior of single and nanocrystalline copper subjected to monotonic and cyclic loading whereas Chapter 6 presents the result and discussion on the impediment to grain growth caused by the dopant during fatigue/stress assisted grain growth. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for future work are presented in Chapter 5.Chapter 2This chapter offers an expanded summary of the literature published with regards to the fabrication methods, characterization, and properties of nanocrystalline materials in addition to a description of existing interconnect technology.2.1 Off- Chip Interconnect TechnologiesChip-to-package interconnections in microsystems packages serve as electrical interconnections but they will often failed by mechanisms such as fatigue and creep. Furthermore, driven by the need for increase the system functionality and decrease the feature size, the International Technology Roadmap for Semi-conductors (ITRS) has predicted that interconnections of integrated chip (IC) packages will have a I/O pitch of 90 nm by the year 2018 2.The International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS) roadmap is a roadmap that semiconductor industry closely follows closely and its projects the need for several technology generations. The package must be capable of meeting these projections in order for it to be successful. This section reviews some of the current interconnect technology.Wire bonding 15 as shown in Figure 2.1, is generally considered as one of the most simple, cost-efficient and flexible interconnect technology. The devices on the si licon die are (gold or aluminum) wire bonded to electrically connect from the chip to the wire bond pads on the periphery. However, the disadvantages of wire bonding are the slow rate, large pitch and long interconnect length and hence this will not be able for high I/O application.Instead of wires in the wire bonding, tape automated bonding (TAB) is an interconnect technology using a prefabricated perforated polyimide film, with copper leads between chip and substrate. The advantage of this technology is the high throughput and the high lead count. However, it is limited by the high initial costs for tooling.An ersatz to peripheral interconnect technology is the area-array solution, as shown in Figure 2.3, that adit the unused area by using the area under the chip. In area-array packaging, the chip has an array of solder bumps that are joined to a substrate. Under-fill is then fills the gap between the chip and substrate to enhance mechanical adhesion. This technology gives th e highest packaging density methods and best electrical characteristics of all the avaiable interconnection technology. However, not only is its initial cost is high, it requires a very demanding technology to establish and operate.With the need for higher I/O density, compliant interconnects have been developed to satisfy the mechanical requirements of high performance micron sized interconnects. The introductory idea is to reduce shear stress experienced by the interconnects through increasing their height or decreasing of its shear modulus (i.e. increases in their compliant) and hence the name compliant interconnects. Some of recent research in compliant interconnects include Tesseras Wide Area Vertical Expansion, Form Factors Wire on Wafer and Georgia Institute of Technologys Helix interconnects 17-19 as shown in Figure 2.4.Although compliant interconnects can solve the problem of mechanical reliability issue, they are through at the expense of the electrical performance. Since there is a need to reduce the packages parasitic through a decrease line delays, there is a need to minimize the electrical connection length in order to increase the system working frequency. Hence, compliant interconnect may not meet the high electrical frequency requirements of future devices.Figure 2.4 (a) Wide Area Vertical Expansion, (b) Wire on Wafer and (c) G-Helix 17-19Lead and lead-free solders typically fail mechanical when scaled down to less than to a pitch of 100 mm. Compliant interconnections, on the other hand, do not meet the high frequency electrical requirements. The Microsystems Packaging Research Center at Georgia institute of Technology had demonstrated the feasibility of using re-workable nanostructure interconnections. Aggarwal et al 20 had show that nanostructured nickel interconnections, through a Flip Chip test vehicle, was able to improve the mechanical reliability while maintaining the shortest electrical connection length. However, the main disadvantag es of this method was the significant signal loss at high frequency signal of nanocrystalline nickel 21.As discussed above, nanostructure interconnects technology is the most bright interconnect technology to best meet the stringent mechanical and electrical requirement of next generation devices. However, there is a need of an assemble materials and a sensible choice of materials in this case would be nanocrystalline copper for its high strength material with superior electrical conductivity.Hence, it would be expert to use nanocrystalline-copper as material for the nanostructure interconnects. Due to the tendency for the grain to grow, there is a need to stabilize the grain growth in nanocrystalline copper before using it could be considered as a potential campaigner for nanostructure interconnect.2.2 Nanocrystalline materialNanocrystalline materials are polycrystalline materials with an average grain size of less than 100 nm 22. Over the past decade , new nanocrystalline or na nostructured materials with key microstructural length scales on the order of a few tens of nanometers has been gaining a lot of interest in the material science research society.This is generally due to its unique and superior properties, as compared to their microcrystalline counterparts which includes increased strength 22 and wear resistance 23. These unique properties are due to the large volume fraction of atoms at or near the grain boundaries. As a result, these materials have unique properties that are representative of both the grain boundary surface characteristics and the bulk.Recent advances in synthesis and processing methodology for producing nanocrystalline materials such as inert gas condensation 24, mechanical milling 25, 26, electro-deposition 27, and severe plastic deformation 28 have made it possible to produce sufficient nanocrystalline materials for small scale application.2.2.1 SynthesisInert gas condensation, the first method used to synthesis bulk nanocryst alline 29, consists of evaporating a metal inside a high-vacuum chamber and then backfilling the chamber with inert gas 30. These evaporated metal atoms would then collide with the gas atoms, causing them to lose kinetic energy and condenses into powder of small nano-crystals. These powders are then compacted under high pressure and vacuum into nearly fully dense nanocrystalline solids.The grain size distribution obtained from this method is usually very narrow. However, the major draws back of this method are its high porosity levels and imperfection bonding. Grain coarsening also occurs due to the high temperature during the press stage 31.Mechanical milling consists of heavy cyclic deformation in powders until the final composition of the powders corresponds to a certain percentages of the respective initial constituents 25, 26. A wide grain size distribution is obtained by this method. This technique is a popular method to prepare nanocrystalline materials because of its applic ability to any material and simplicity. However, their main drawback includes contamination and grain coarsening during the consolidation stage.Electro-deposition consists of using electrical current to reduce cations of a desired material from a electrolyte solution and coating a conductive object on the substrate. Electro-deposition has many advantages over processing techniques and this includes its applicability to a wide variety of materials, low initial capital enthronisation requirements and porosity-free finished products without a need for consolidation processing 27. Furthermore, Shen et al. 32 and Lu et al.33 had late show that the right electro-deposition condition can produce a highly twinned structure which leads to enhanced ductility. The main drawback of this method is it is the difficulty to achieve high purity.Severe plastic deformation, such as high-pressure torsion, equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE), continuous confined shear push and accumulative roll-bo nding, uses extreme plastic straining to produce nanocrystalline materials by mechanisms such as grain fragmentation, dynamic recovery, and geometric re-crystallization 34. It is the only technology that modify conventional macro-grained metals directly into nanocrystalline materials without the need of potentially hazardous nano-sized powders. This is achieved by introducing very high shear deformations into the material under superimposed hydrostatic pressure. dickens of the most commonly used methods are high-pressure torsion and ECAE 35. In the study of the effect of ECAE on the microstructure of nanocrystalline copper, Dalla Torre et al 36 observed that the grains become more equi-axial and randomly orientation as the number of passes increases, as shown in Figure 2.5Figure 2.5 Microstructure of ECAE copper subjected to (a) 1 passes (b) 2 passes (c) 4 passes (d) 8 passes (e) 12 passes and (f) 16 passes 362.2.2 Mechanical Behavior of nanocrystalline materialsDue to the small g rain size and high volume fraction of grain boundaries, nanocrystalline materials exhibit significantly contrary properties and behavior as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. The structure and mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline materials has been the subject of a lot of researchers interests both experimentally 37-43 and theoretically 44-50. This section reviews the principal mechanical properties and behavior of nanocrystalline materials.2.2.2.1 Strength and ductilityRecent studies of nanocrystalline metals have shown that there is a five to ten fold increases in the strength and hardness as compared to their microcrystalline state 7, 36, 37, 51, 52. This increase in the strength is due to the presence of grain boundaries impeding the nucleation and movement of dislocations.Since decreasing grain boundary size increases the number of barrier and the amount of applied stress demand to move a dislocation across a grain boundary, this resulted in a much higher yield strength. The inverse relationship between grain size and strength is characterized by the Hall-Petch relationship 53, 54 as shown in equation (2.1).Eq (2.1)In equation (2.1), s is the mechanical strength, k is a material constant and d is the average grain size. Hence, nanocrystalline materials are expected to exhibit higher strength as compared to their microcrystalline counterpart. Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7 show the summary of hardness and yield strength from tensile test that are reported in the literature. Indeed, hardness and yield strength of copper with a grain size of 10nm (3GPa) can be one order higher than their microcrystalline counterpart. To the larger specimens.Derivation from Hall-Petch relationship begins as the grain size approaches 30nm where the stresses needed to activate the dislocation multiplication via Frank-Read sources at heart the grains are too high and the plastic deformation is instead accommodated by grain boundaries sliding and migration.12. Furthe rmore, as the grain size reduces, the volume fraction of the grain boundaries and the triple points increases.Material properties will be more representative of the grain boundary activity 64 and this will resulting the strength to be mutually proportional to grain size instead of square roots of the grain size as predicted by Hall Petch relation 65. Further reduction in the grain size will result in grain boundaries processes controlling the plastic deformation and reverse Hall-Petch effect, where the materials soften, will take place.Although example defects had been account for the earlier experimental observation of reverse Hall-Petch effect24, Swygenhoven et al 66 and Schiotz et al 47, using molecular simulation, was able to showed that nanocrystalline copper had the highest strength (about 2.3GPa ) at a grain size of 8nm and 10-15nm respectively. Conrad et al 67 pointed out that below this critical grain size, the mechanisms shifted to grain boundary-mediated from dislocatio n-mediated plasticity and this causes the material to become dependent on strain rate, temperature, Taylor orientation factor and presence of the type of dislocation.The yield stress of nanocrystalline copper was highly sensitive to strain rate even though it is a fcc materials. The strain rate sensitivity, m, in equation 2.2 a engineering parametric quantity which measured the dependency of the strain rate and Figure 2.8 shows a summary of m as a function of grain size for copper specimen in the literature 51, 68-70. Due to high localized dislocation activities at the grain boundaries which results in enhanced strain rate sensitivities in nanocrystalline materials, m increases drastically when the grain size is below 0.1 mm as shown in Figure 2.8.(2.2)Room temperature strain rate sensitivity was found to dependent on dislocation activities and grain boundaries diffusion 52, 71, 72. Due to the trifling lattice diffusion at room temperature, the rate limiting process for microcrysta lline copper was the gliding dislocation to cutting through woodwind dislocation, resulting in low strain rate sensitivities.However, due to the increasing presence of obstacles such as grain boundaries for nanocrystalline materials, the rate limiting process for smaller grain size was the interaction of dislocation and the grain boundaries, which is strain rate and temperature dependence. By considering the length scale of the dislocation and grain boundaries interaction, Cheng et al 52 proposed the following model for strain rate sensitivities. (2.3)z is the distance swept by the dislocation during activation, r is the dislocation density and a, a and b are the proportional factors. With this model, they will be able to predict higher strain rate sensitivities for nanocrystalline material produced by severe plastic deformation as compared to other technique. Since the twin boundaries in nanocrystalline or ultra fine grain copper served as a barriers for dislocation motion and nuc leation which led to highly localized dislocations near the twin boundaries, the strain rate sensitivity of copper with high density of coherent twin boundaries was found to be higher than those without any twin boundaries 33. Lastly, the increase enhanced strain rate sensitivity in nanocrystalline copper had been credited for it increases in strength and ductility. For example, Valiev et al 60 credited the enhanced strain rate sensitivity of 0.16 for the high ductility.In addition to a strong dependency on the strain rate, strength in nanocrystalline materials was also highly dependent on the temperature. Wang et al 73 observed that the yield strength for ultra fine grain copper with a grain size of 300nm increases from approximately 370MPa to 500MPa when the temperature reduces from room temperature to 77k. The authors attributed this increase in yield strength due to the absence of additional thermal deformation processes at 77k. This is tenacious with Huang et al 74 observation where the temperature dependence of nanocrystalline copper with an increase in hardness of nanocrystalline copper with lowering the temperature is notedDuctility is another important characteristic of nanocrystalline materials. In microcrystalline materials, a reduction in grain size will increase the ductility due to the presence of grain boundaries acting as effective barriers to the propagation of micro-cracks75. However, nanocrystalline copper showed a lower strain to failure than that of their microcrystalline counterparts and this lacks in ductility was attributed to the presence of processing defects 76.Recent advanced in processing of nanocrystalline materials offer materials with fairly good ductility in additional to ultra-high strength. Lu et al 10 reported that nanocrystalline copper with borderline flaw produced via electro-deposition had an elongation to fracture of 30%. Furthermore, Youssef et al 77 observed a 15.5% elongation to failure for defect free nanocrystall ine copper produced via mechanical milling. Hence, it was possible for nanocrystalline copper to be both strong and ductile if the processing artifacts are minimized.The failure are usually consists of dimples several time larger than their grain size was normally found on the failure morphology of nanocrystalline materials and Kumar et al 78 presented the following model for initiation and hence the eventual failure of nanocrystalline materials. Furthermore, the presence of shear region was found to be due to shear hole since the ratio of strain hardening rate to prevailing stress was usually small 79, 80.Figure 2.9 Schematic illustration of fracture in nanocrystalline material postulated by Kumar et al 782.2.2.2 CreepsNanocrystalline materials are expected to creep during room temperature. This is because Due to the higher fraction of grain boundaries and triple junctions, self diffusivity of nanocrystalline material had been shown to increase by an order of three as compared to microcrystalline copper 81. Since creep behavior was dependent on grain size and diffusivity, with creep rate increases with an increase in diffusivity or a decrease in grain size, the creep temperature for nanocrystalline copper was known to be a small fraction of melting temperature (about 0.22 of its melting points). Furthermore, since creep had always been cited as one of the reason for grain size softening in nanocrystalline materials, creeps were other important mechanical properties of nanocrystalline materials that had been gaining a lot of researchers attention.Due to the high volume fraction of grain boundaries and enhanced diffusivity rate

Rhyme And Rythm in Blakes A Divine Image Essay -- Blake Divine Image

Rhyme And Rythm in Blakes A noble Image In A Divine Image, Blake uses several techniques and literary devices, to transmit his thoughts about social injustice, cruelty and human nature, Rhyme and cps are two of the main features in this poem this poem is the cps affect the whole mood, tone and meaning of the poem. The poet has chosen different methods to possess the poem specific sounds that affect the pace and structure of the rhythm.The structure of the primary stanza helps us understand the relationships between the four aspects of human nature presented, cruelty, jealousy, alarm and secrecy. The first and third lines start with the main word, while in the endorsement and fourth ones the words come preceded by the word And. This makes the ratifier touch on cruelty with terror and jealousy with secrecy automatically. We can notice that the direction of the lines in this first stanza falls onto the main word, giving an emphasizing effect. foreign many other Blake poems, s uch as The Tyger or The Lamb we cannot maintain rhyming couplets in this stanza, but the rhyming and stressing effect is enough for the reader to tie the ideas together. This effect is strengthened by the repetition of the word human in every line and the repetition of the y ending sounds in lines one, two and four.The structure of the second stanza differs from the structure of the first one. We notice that individually of the lines provide an answer in a symmetrical way to all(prenominal) one in the first s...